Where should the concession and rebuttal go? Classical rhetoric had an answer, and a flexible one. Roman teachers such as Cicero, in his early book De Inventione (about 84 BC), described six parts of a persuasive speech.
| Part | Its job | In an essay |
|---|---|---|
| Exordium (introduction) | win the audience’s attention and goodwill | a hook and a reason to care |
| Narratio (statement of facts) | tell the background the audience needs | context: what is happening and why it matters |
| Partitio (division) | state the claim and the points to come | the thesis, sometimes with a preview |
| Confirmatio (proof) | give the reasons and evidence | the body paragraphs |
| Refutatio (refutation) | answer the opposing views | counterargument, concession and rebuttal |
| Peroratio (conclusion) | sum up and move the audience | why it matters; what to do next |
Key idea
The classical parts are a toolkit, not a fixed order. Writers move the refutation earlier for a skeptical audience, shorten the background for experts, and fit the order to the audience and the occasion.
Why it works
Each part answers a question an audience brings: Why should I listen? What is going on? What exactly are you claiming? Why believe it? What about the objections? So what? Answer them in the order your audience will ask them.
Worked example: The partitio in the Federalist
Madison, Federalist No. 10: “There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction: the one, by removing its causes; the other, by controlling its effects.” Which part of the arrangement is this?
- The sentence divides the subject into two parts and tells readers what is coming.
- Madison goes on to reject the first method and argue for the second.
- Dividing the question and previewing the points is the partitio.
Answer: A partitio: it divides the question and maps the argument ahead.
Worked example: Moving the refutation
You are writing to a school board that has already voted down a later start once. Where should the refutation go?
- This audience starts out skeptical, with its objections fresh in mind.
- If you wait until the end to answer them, they may stop listening.
- Answer the main objection early, right after the background, then give your proof.
Answer: Early, before the proof: a skeptical audience needs its objections answered first.
Common mistake
Thinking there is one fixed order for an argument. The classical list is a set of jobs, not a script. Check: who is your audience, and which question will they ask first? Start there.