Part One

Foundations

How Koine Greek and Latin work, side by side. The marks = ≈ ≠ say whether the two languages work the same way, nearly the same way, or differently. This part follows the poster Koine Greek & Latin: A Side-by-Side 101.

Overview: two languages, one sentence

A Side-by-Side 101 · From First Principles

Two alphabets, one ancient grammar — the letters, the sounds, and a four-year course in outline

The two languages

ἡ κοινή · “the common” Greek	LINGVA LATINA · Latin
c. 300 BC–AD 300. Spread by Alexander’s conquests, it became the everyday language of the eastern Mediterranean: the Septuagint, the New Testament, Polybius, Epictetus.	Classical c. 100 BC–AD 200: Cicero, Caesar, Virgil. As Church and scholarly Latin it lasted 1,500 more years: the Vulgate, Augustine, Aquinas, Newton.

Cousins, not parent and child. Both descend from Proto-Indo-European. Latin’s alphabet came from a western Greek alphabet by way of the Etruscans.

Legend

Mark	Meaning
=	Same idea
≈	Same job, different tools
≠	Different

In the tables, Greek is on the left and Latin on the right.

One sentence, both languages: John 1:1

The Greek original and Jerome’s Latin Vulgate, word for word.

John 1:1, word for word

Greek	Greek grammar	Latin	Latin grammar	English
Ἐν	preposition + dative	In	preposition + ablative	In
ἀρχῇ	noun · dative sg. fem. · 1st decl.	principiō	noun · ablative sg. neut. · 2nd decl.	the beginning
ἦν	εἰμί “be” · imperfect · 3rd sg.	erat	sum “be” · imperfect · 3rd sg.	was
ὁ λόγος	article + noun · nominative sg. masc.	Verbum	noun · nominative sg. neut. · no article	the Word

Same skeleton: preposition + case, the imperfect of “to be,” and a nominative subject placed after its verb.
Greek has “the” (ὁ); Latin has no articles at all.
Greek “in” takes the dative; Latin “in” takes the ablative — Latin’s sixth case does work Greek gives the dative.
Gender can differ: λόγος is masculine, verbum neuter.

1 · Letters & Sounds

The Greek alphabet · 24 letters

Letter	Name	Sound	As in
Α α	alpha	a	father
Β β	beta	b	boy
Γ γ	gamma	g	go · γγ = ng
Δ δ	delta	d	dog
Ε ε	epsilon	e	pet
Ζ ζ	zeta	z	zeal, “dz”
Η η	eta	ē	they
Θ θ	theta	th	thin
Ι ι	iota	i	machine, sit
Κ κ	kappa	k	kite
Λ λ	lambda	l	lamp
Μ μ	mu	m	mother
Ν ν	nu	n	no
Ξ ξ	xi	x	ax, “ks”
Ο ο	omicron	o	ought (short)
Π π	pi	p	pet
Ρ ρ	rho	r	rolled r
Σ σ ς	sigma	s	sit · ς at end
Τ τ	tau	t	top
Υ υ	upsilon	u / y	French u
Φ φ	phi	ph	phone
Χ χ	chi	ch	loch, Bach
Ψ ψ	psi	ps	lips
Ω ω	omega	ō	tone (long)

Sounds are the Erasmian system most classrooms use. Koine speakers were already shifting toward Modern Greek: η, ι, υ, ει, οι drifting toward “ee.”

The Latin alphabet · 23 letters

Letter	Sound	As in
A a	a	father, idea
B b	b	boy
C c	k	cat, always hard [ch before e, i]
D d	d	dog
E e	e	they, pet
F f	f	fan
G g	g	go, always hard [soft before e, i]
H h	h	hat
I i	i / y	machine; iam “yam”
K k	k	rare: Kalendae
L l	l	lamp
M m	m	mother
N n	n	no
O o	o	note, ought
P p	p	pet
Q q	kw	always qu
R r	r	rolled r
S s	s	sit, never z
T t	t	top
V v	u / w	rule; vīnum “wee-” [v]
X x	ks	ax
Y y	ü	Greek loans only
Z z	dz	Greek loans only

J, U, W came later

Restored classical sounds, with church (ecclesiastical) Latin in brackets. No J, U, or W yet: I and V served as both vowel and consonant.

≈ Shared shapes. A B E Z H I K M N O T X Y look alike: Latin’s letters descend from Greek ones.

False friends. Greek H = long e · P = r · X = ch · Υ = ü · N ν = n · Latin C = k

Greek · beyond the letters

	Greek
Diphthongs	αι aisle · ει eight · οι oil · ου soup · αυ how · ευ eh-oo · υι we
Breathings	Every word-initial vowel (and initial ρ, written ῥ) carries one: rough ἁ = “h” (ἁμαρτία hamartia), smooth ἀ = no sound.
Accents	Acute ά, grave ὰ, circumflex ᾶ. Originally pitch; read them as stress. They can fall only on the last three syllables.
Iota subscript	ᾳ ῃ ῳ — a silent ι written under the vowel; it often marks the dative.
Punctuation	; is a question mark · · (raised dot) is a colon or semicolon.

Latin · beyond the letters

	Latin
Vowel length	Long vowels (marked with macrons in textbooks) take longer to say — and can change meaning: mālum apple, malum evil.
Diphthongs	ae aisle [church: “ay”] · au how · oe oil [“ay”] · ei eight · eu eh-oo · ui we
Stress rule	Two syllables: stress the first. Longer: stress the second-to-last if it is long, otherwise the third-to-last: a-MĪ-cus, DO-mi-nus.
I and V	I is “ee” or “y” (iam “yam”); V is “oo” or “w” (vīnum “wee-num”) [church: “v”].
Church Latin	c, g soften before e / i (caelum “chay-loom”); ti + vowel = “tsee.” Both systems are respectable; pick one and be consistent.

= The three-syllable window. In both languages, the accent never falls further back than the third syllable from the end.

2 · The First Principle

endings, not order, carry the meaning

Order decides · endings decide

	Sentence	Word order
English · order decides	Dog bites man.	subject · verb · object
	Man bites dog.	subject · verb · object
Greek · endings decide	ὁ κύων δάκνει τὸν ἄνθρωπον.	subject · verb · object
	τὸν ἄνθρωπον δάκνει ὁ κύων.	object · verb · subject
Latin · endings decide	Canis hominem mordet.	subject · object · verb
	Hominem canis mordet.	object · subject · verb

English: Swap the words and the meaning flips. English nouns barely change form.
Greek: Both say “the dog bites the man.” The nominative (ὁ, -ων) marks the biter; the accusative (τόν, -ον) the bitten.
Latin: Both say “the dog bites the man.” The order changes the emphasis, not who bites whom.

Why this matters

Greek	Latin
Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and the article decline: their endings change for case, number, and gender.	Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns decline for case, number, and gender — there is no article to help.
Verbs conjugate: the ending tells you who acts. λύω = “I loose”; λύομεν = “we loose.” No pronoun needed.	Verbs conjugate: amō = “I love”; amāmus = “we love.” A pronoun (ego) adds emphasis.
Reading method: find the verb, then find its subject (nominative), then its object (accusative).	Reading method: the same. Word order is freer, but prose tends to end with the verb.

= Same engine. Both are inflected languages. Learn the case system once and use it twice.

3 · Nouns & Cases

The noun

	Greek	Latin
Cases	5: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative	6: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative (+ a locative relic: Rōmae “at Rome”)
Genders	3: masculine, feminine, neuter	3: masculine, feminine, neuter
Numbers	2: singular, plural (Attic’s dual has vanished in Koine)	2: singular, plural
Declensions	3 families of endings: 1st (mostly feminine, -α / -η), 2nd (-ος masc., -ον neut.), 3rd (consonant and vowel stems)	5 families: 1st (-a), 2nd (-us / -um), 3rd (consonant & i-stems), 4th (-us, manus), 5th (-ēs, rēs)

≈ 5 cases vs. 6. Latin keeps an ablative. Greek hands its jobs to the genitive and dative.

What each case does

Case	Greek	Latin
Nominative (=)	Subject; predicate noun: ὁ λόγος	Subject; predicate noun: verbum
Genitive (≈)	“of”: possession, description, part of a whole — and “from” (separation, source)	“of”: possession, description, part of a whole; object of some verbs
Dative (≈)	“to / for”: indirect object — and “by, with, in” (means, manner, place and time when)	“to / for”: indirect object, interest; possession: mihi est liber “I have a book”
Accusative (=)	Direct object; motion toward (εἰς); extent of time and space; subject of an infinitive	Direct object; motion toward (ad, in); extent of time and space; subject of an infinitive
Ablative (≠)	— none. Its jobs are split: “from” goes to the genitive; “by, with, in” to the dative.	“by, with, from, in”: means, manner, separation, place and time when; follows many prepositions
Vocative (=)	Direct address: κύριε “O Lord”	Direct address: domine “O Lord”

Greek paradigms · endings in bold

	ἀρχή f · 1st	λόγος m · 2nd	ἔργον n · 2nd	σάρξ f · 3rd
N	ἀρχή	λόγος	ἔργον	σάρξ
G	ἀρχῆς	λόγου	ἔργου	σαρκός
D	ἀρχῇ	λόγῳ	ἔργῳ	σαρκί
A	ἀρχήν	λόγον	ἔργον	σάρκα
V	ἀρχή	λόγε	ἔργον	σάρξ
N pl	ἀρχαί	λόγοι	ἔργα	σάρκες
G pl	ἀρχῶν	λόγων	ἔργων	σαρκῶν
D pl	ἀρχαῖς	λόγοις	ἔργοις	σαρξί(ν)
A pl	ἀρχάς	λόγους	ἔργα	σάρκας

Plural vocative = nominative. Vocative singular of σάρξ = nominative.

Latin paradigms · endings in bold

	puella f · 1st	dominus m · 2nd	verbum n · 2nd	rēx m · 3rd
N	puella	dominus	verbum	rēx
G	puellae	dominī	verbī	rēgis
D	puellae	dominō	verbō	rēgī
A	puellam	dominum	verbum	rēgem
Ab	puellā	dominō	verbō	rēge
V	puella	domine	verbum	rēx
N pl	puellae	dominī	verba	rēgēs
G pl	puellārum	dominōrum	verbōrum	rēgum
D pl	puellīs	dominīs	verbīs	rēgibus
A pl	puellās	dominōs	verba	rēgēs
Ab pl	puellīs	dominīs	verbīs	rēgibus

4th: manus, manūs “hand” · 5th: rēs, reī “thing,” diēs “day.”

= 2nd declension twins. -ος -ον -ε ≈ -us -um -e. Same ancestor ending.

Neuter rule. Nominative = accusative; plural ends in -α / -a.

3rd declension. Find the stem in the genitive: σαρκ-ός, rēg-is.

4 · Article, Adjectives, Pronouns

The article · “the” in 24 forms

	m. sg	f. sg	n. sg	m. pl	f. pl	n. pl
N	ὁ	ἡ	τό	οἱ	αἱ	τά
G	τοῦ	τῆς	τοῦ	τῶν	τῶν	τῶν
D	τῷ	τῇ	τῷ	τοῖς	ταῖς	τοῖς
A	τόν	τήν	τό	τούς	τάς	τά

Attributive: ὁ ἀγαθὸς λόγος = “the good word.”
Predicate: ὁ λόγος ἀγαθός = “the word is good” — no verb needed.
Turns anything into a noun: τὸ ἀγαθόν “the good”; οἱ ἐν οὐρανῷ “those in heaven.”
No word for “a”: λόγος alone = “a word.”

No articles · adjectives do the work

	masc.	fem.	neut.
Greek	ἀγαθός	ἀγαθή	ἀγαθόν
Latin	bonus	bona	bonum

verbum bonum = “a good word” or “the good word” — context decides.
verbum bonum est = “the word is good” — Latin usually keeps the verb.
Adjectives as nouns: bonī “good men,” bonum “the good.”
Comparison: fort-ior, fort-issimus “braver, bravest” ≈ Greek σοφώ-τερος, σοφώ-τατος “wiser, wisest.”

≠ Article vs. none. Greek marks “the”; Latin leaves it to context. Later, Latin ille “that” became the Romance articles: le, el, il.

= Agreement. Adjectives match their noun in gender, number, and case in both.

Pronouns side by side

	Greek	Latin	Note
I	ἐγώ	ego	Both drop subject pronouns; using one adds emphasis.
you (one)	σύ	tū
we	ἡμεῖς	nōs
you (all)	ὑμεῖς	vōs
he, she, it	αὐτός, -ή, -ό	is, ea, id	Greek αὐτός also means “-self” and, after the article, “same.”
-self	αὐτός	ipse
this	οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο	hic, haec, hoc
that	ἐκεῖνος, -η, -ο	ille, illa, illud	ille later became le, el, il.
who, which (relative)	ὅς, ἥ, ὅ	quī, quae, quod	Agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; its case comes from its own clause.
who? what?	τίς, τί	quis, quid	Greek: the question word always keeps its acute (τίνος, not τινός); unaccented τις = “someone.”

5 · Verbs

The verb system

	Greek	Latin
Person (=)	1st, 2nd, 3rd — shown by the ending	1st, 2nd, 3rd — shown by the ending
Number (=)	Singular, plural (the dual is gone in Koine). A neuter plural subject often takes a singular verb.	Singular, plural
Tense (≠)	Present, imperfect, future, aorist, perfect, pluperfect. They mark aspect everywhere, and time only in the indicative.	Present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, future perfect. They mark time (and completion).
Voice (≈)	Active, middle (acting for or on oneself), passive. Deponents: middle form, active meaning — ἔρχομαι “I come.”	Active, passive. Deponents: passive form, active meaning — loquor “I speak.”
Mood (≈)	Indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and optative — rare in Koine, mostly wishes: μὴ γένοιτο “may it never be!”	Indicative, subjunctive, imperative. The subjunctive does the optative’s work: utinam veniat “if only he would come.”

Greek asks “what kind of action?” · Aspect

Tense	Kind of action	Example
Present · Imperfect	ongoing, in progress, repeated	λύω “I am loosing” · ἔλυον “I was loosing”
Aorist	the action as a whole, a simple event	ἔλυσα “I loosed”
Perfect	completed, with results that still stand	λέλυκα “I have loosed (and it stays loosed)”

Latin asks “when?” · Six tenses (timeline, left to right)

Time	Tense	Form	Meaning
Past	Pluperfect	amāveram	“I had loved”
Past	Perfect	amāvī	“I loved / have loved”
Past	Imperfect (ongoing, in the past)	amābam	“I was loving”
Now	Present	amō	“I love”
Future	Future perfect	amāverō	“I will have loved”
Future	Future	amābō	“I will love”

≠ Aspect vs. time. Outside the indicative, Greek tense forms show only aspect. Latin tenses place the action in time. The Latin perfect covers both the Greek aorist and the Greek perfect.

Present active & “to be” (endings in bold)

	λύω “I loose”	εἰμί “I am”	amō “I love”	sum “I am”	English
1 sg	λύω	εἰμί	amō	sum	I
2 sg	λύεις	εἶ	amās	es	you
3 sg	λύει	ἐστί(ν)	amat	est	he, she, it
1 pl	λύομεν	ἐσμέν	amāmus	sumus	we
2 pl	λύετε	ἐστέ	amātis	estis	you all
3 pl	λύουσι(ν)	εἰσί(ν)	amant	sunt	they

= Same ancestral endings. -μεν ≈ -mus · -τε ≈ -tis · -ουσι ≈ -nt · ἐστί ≈ est. “is” in both comes from one root, *h₁es-.

Building a Greek verb · front and back

Front	Stem	Sign	Ending	Meaning
ἐ (augment)	λύ	ο (vowel)	μεν	“we were loosing” · imperfect
ἐ (augment)	λύ	σα (tense)	μεν	“we loosed” · aorist
λε (redupl.)	λύ	κα (tense)	μεν	“we have loosed” · perfect

Greek · 6 principal parts

Present	Future	Aorist act.	Perfect act.	Perf. mid./pass.	Aorist pass.
λύω	λύσω	ἔλυσα	λέλυκα	λέλυμαι	ἐλύθην

Building a Latin verb · the back only

Stem	Sign	Ending	Meaning
amā	bā (tense)	mus	“we were loving” · imperfect
amā	vi (perfect)	mus	“we loved / have loved” · perfect
amā	ve·rā (pluperfect)	mus	“we had loved” · pluperfect

Latin · 4 principal parts

Present	Infinitive	Perfect	Supine · participle
amō	amāre	amāvī	amātum

≈ Stem + sign + ending. Both stack tense signs and personal endings onto a stem. Greek also marks the front: the augment ἐ- (past, indicative only) and reduplication (perfect).

Principal parts. Memorize them and you can build almost every form.

Greek · verb families & verbal nouns and adjectives

	Greek
-ω verbs	λύω “loose” — the regular pattern
Contract	ἀγαπάω, ποιέω, πληρόω — the stem vowel merges with the ending
-μι verbs	δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, ἵστημι stand, εἰμί be
Irregular stems	ἔρχομαι / ἦλθον come · ὁράω / εἶδον see · λέγω / εἶπον say
Participles	λύων, λύσας, λελυκώς, λυόμενος, λυθείς, λελυμένος — every tense and voice, used everywhere: “the one who…,” “while…,” “after…,” “because…”
Infinitives	λύειν, λῦσαι, λελυκέναι, λυθῆναι; with the article: τὸ λύειν “the act of loosing”

Latin · verb families & verbal nouns and adjectives

	Latin
4 conjugations	1st amāre · 2nd monēre · 3rd regere (and -iō: capere) · 4th audīre
Irregulars	sum be, possum can, eō go, ferō carry, volō / nōlō / mālō want / not want / prefer
Deponents	Passive in form, active in meaning: loquor “I speak,” sequor “I follow”
Participles	amāns loving · amātus having been loved · amātūrus about to love · amandus (gerundive) to be loved
Infinitives	amāre, amāvisse, amātūrus esse, amārī
Gerund, supine	ars amandī “the art of loving” · vēnit spectātum “he came to watch”

≈ Old irregulars. -μι verbs and Latin sum are the same ancient type: εἰ-μί ≈ su-m.

Participles. Greek has many and leans on them; Latin has four and often uses clauses instead.

6 · Building Sentences

the syntax of years two to four

Constructions

Construction	Greek	Latin
Negation (≈)	οὐ for facts (indicative); μή for everything else — commands, subjunctives, infinitives, most participles.	nōn for statements; nē for prohibitions, purpose, wishes, and fears.
Yes-or-no questions (=)	οὐ expects “yes”; μή expects “no.” The question mark is;	nōnne expects “yes”; num expects “no”; -ne is neutral.
Prepositions (≈)	The case changes the meaning: διά + gen. “through,” + acc. “because of”; ἐν + dat. “in”; εἰς + acc. “into.”	The case changes the meaning: in + abl. “in,” + acc. “into”; ad + acc. “to”; ex + abl. “out of.”
Purpose “in order to” (=)	ἵνα + subjunctive, Koine’s favorite: ἦλθεν ἵνα ἴδῃ “he came to see.”	ut + subjunctive (nē if negative): vēnit ut vidēret “he came to see.”
Result “so that” (≠)	ὥστε + infinitive (natural result) or indicative (actual result).	ut + subjunctive — the same word as purpose, but negated with ut nōn.
Indirect statement (≈)	ὅτι + indicative, much like English: λέγει ὅτι ἔρχεται “he says that he is coming.” Accusative + infinitive also occurs.	Accusative + infinitive: dīcit sē venīre “he says that he (himself) is coming.”
Absolute phrases (≈)	Genitive absolute: αὐτοῦ λαλοῦντος “while he was speaking.”	Ablative absolute: eō loquente “while he was speaking”; urbe captā “the city having been taken.”
Conditions (≈)	εἰ + indicative (assumed true) · ἐάν + subjunctive (future, likely) · εἰ + past indicative … ἄν (contrary to fact).	sī + indicative (simple) · sī + present subjunctive (“should … would”) · sī + imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive (contrary to fact).
When, since, although (≈)	ὅτε “when,” ἐπεί “since,” καίπερ + participle “although” — or simply a participle.	cum + subjunctive can mean “when,” “since,” or “although”; context decides.
Sequence (≠)	Attic’s optional optative after past-tense verbs mostly disappears in Koine.	Sequence of tenses: a past main verb puts dependent subjunctives in past tenses — vēnit ut vidēret, not videat.
Word order (≠)	Koine narrative often puts the verb early (καὶ ἐγένετο… “and it came to pass…”), partly Semitic style.	Classical prose likes the verb last: Caesar pontem fēcit “Caesar built a bridge.”

7 · Shared Words

Cognates · inherited from one ancestor

Greek	Latin	English
πατήρ	pater	father
μήτηρ	māter	mother
ὄνομα	nōmen	name
ἐγώ	ego	I
ἐστί	est	is
φέρω	ferō	I carry
γένος	genus	kind, birth
ἀγρός	ager	field
νύξ	nox	night
πούς	pēs	foot
ζυγόν	iugum	yoke
δόμος	domus	house

Sound laws · predict the match

Pattern	Examples
Greek h- ↔ Latin s-	ἕξ / sex · ἑπτά / septem · ὑπέρ / super · ἅλς / sal · ἡμι- / sēmi-
Greek φ ↔ Latin f	φέρω / ferō “carry” · φηγός “oak” / fāgus “beech”
Greek -ος, -ον ↔ Latin -us, -um	ζυγόν / iugum “yoke” · δόμος / domus “house”
Borrowed both ways	Into Latin: ecclēsia, angelus, baptizāre, philosophia. Into Koine: κεντυρίων, δηνάριον, λεγιών, πραιτώριον — centurion, denarius, legion, praetorium.

Counting to ten

	Greek	Latin
1	εἷς	ūnus
2	δύο	duo
3	τρεῖς	trēs
4	τέσσαρες	quattuor
5	πέντε	quīnque
6	ἕξ	sex
7	ἑπτά	septem
8	ὀκτώ	octō
9	ἐννέα	novem
10	δέκα	decem

All cognate except “one”: εἷς comes from a root meaning “together” (Latin semel “once,” simplex), ūnus from another.

Everyday cognates in English

English	Latin	Greek	English words from them
father	pater	πατήρ	paternal, patriarch
name	nōmen	ὄνομα	nominate, anonymous
foot	pēs	πούς	pedal, podiatry

8 · A Four-Year Path

A four-year path

	Koine Greek	Latin
Year 1	Alphabet and sounds · the article · 1st and 2nd declensions · present, imperfect, future · prepositions · personal pronouns	Pronunciation · 1st and 2nd declensions · 1st and 2nd conjugations · all six indicative tenses · adjectives · start the 3rd declension
	First reading: 1 John, John	First reading: adapted stories, Phaedrus’s fables
Year 2	3rd declension · aorist and perfect · middle and passive · participles · subjunctive and imperative · contract and -μι verbs	3rd–5th declensions · 3rd and 4th conjugations · passive and deponents · participles and the ablative absolute · infinitives and indirect statement
	Reading: Mark, then Luke	Reading: Caesar, Gallic War
Year 3	Syntax in depth: conditions, genitive absolute, uses of cases and infinitives, the optative · verbal aspect	The subjunctive in full: purpose, result, cum, indirect questions, conditions, sequence of tenses · gerund and gerundive
	Reading: Acts, the Septuagint (Genesis), the Didache	Reading: Cicero’s speeches and letters, Catullus
Year 4	Wide reading: Hebrews, the Septuagint, the Apostolic Fathers, Josephus, Epictetus · textual criticism · a bridge to Attic (Xenophon, Plato)	Virgil’s Aeneid · meter (dactylic hexameter) · Ovid, Horace, Livy · Church Latin: the Vulgate, Augustine, Aquinas
	Goal: read with a lexicon, not a crib	Goal: read with a dictionary, not a translation

In one line

Learn the cases once, use them twice. Learn the letters once, read them for a lifetime.

Forms follow standard school paradigms · Pronunciations are approximate · Greek on the left, Latin on the right

Practice: Foundations

26 questions · answers under each one

Use these questions after the Foundations section. They cover the alphabets, pronunciation, the case endings, the Greek article and the verb “to be”. Try each question first, then open its answer.

1. Match each Greek letter with its name.

theta
chi
phi
eta
psi
lambda
rho
xi

Show the answer

1–d, 2–a, 3–f, 4–h, 5–g, 6–c, 7–b, 8–e (η = eta; θ = theta; λ = lambda; ξ = xi; ρ = rho; φ = phi; χ = chi; ψ = psi)

2. Match each Greek letter with its sound (the Erasmian pronunciation used in most classrooms).

ps as in lips
th as in thin
long e, as in they
ph as in phone
long o, as in tone
x as in ax (ks)
dz, as in zeal said “dzeal”
ch as in Scottish loch or German Bach

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1–b, 2–d, 3–h, 4–a, 5–f, 6–g, 7–c, 8–e (θ = th as in thin; φ = ph as in phone; χ = ch as in Scottish loch or German Bach; ψ = ps as in lips; ξ = x as in ax (ks); ζ = dz, as in zeal said “dzeal”; η = long e, as in they; ω = long o, as in tone)

3. Write these Greek words in Roman letters: (a) λόγος (b) θεός (c) ψυχή (d) Χριστός (e) ἁμαρτία (f) ἄγγελος

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(a) logos (b) theos (c) psychē (d) Christos (e) hamartia (f) angelosθ = th, ψ = ps, η = ē, υ = y, χ = ch; the rough breathing on ἁ adds an h; γγ is written and said ng.

4. In ἄγγελος (angel), the letters γγ are pronounced:

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(b) ng, as in angelGamma before another gamma (or before κ, ξ, χ) is said ng.

5. The mark ‘ over the first letter of ἁμαρτία (sin) is:

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(b) a rough breathing, which adds an h-soundEvery word that begins with a vowel carries a breathing: rough ‘ = h, smooth ’ = no sound. So ἁμαρτία is hamartia.

6. In τῷ λόγῳ the little ι written under each ω is an iota subscript. Which case does it often mark?

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7. On which syllables can a Greek accent stand?

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(c) only on one of the last three syllablesThe accent never goes further back than the third syllable from the end. Latin stress obeys the same three-syllable window.

8. False friends: these Greek capitals look like Latin letters but stand for other sounds. Match each with its sound.

ch
u / y (like French u)
r
long e (ē)

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1–d, 2–c, 3–a, 4–b (Η = long e (ē); Ρ = r; Χ = ch; Υ = u / y (like French u))

9. In the restored classical pronunciation of Latin, how is the c of caelum (heaven) said?

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(a) k, as in cat: c is always hardClassical Latin c is always k. Church Latin softens c before e and i, so caelum becomes “chay-loom”.

10. In classical Latin, the letter v (as in vīnum, wine) is said like English:

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(b) wClassical v is w: vīnum is “wee-num”. Church Latin says v.

11. Give the case and number of each form of λόγος (word): (a) λόγον (b) λόγου (c) λόγοις (d) λόγοι (e) λόγων (f) λόγῳ

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(a) accusative singular (b) genitive singular (c) dative plural (d) nominative plural (also vocative plural) (e) genitive plural (f) dative singular-ος nom., -ου gen., -ῳ dat., -ον acc. singular; -οι nom., -ων gen., -οις dat., -ους acc. plural.

12. Give the case and number of each form of ἀρχή (beginning): (a) ἀρχῆς (b) ἀρχήν (c) ἀρχαῖς (d) ἀρχάς

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(a) genitive singular (b) accusative singular (c) dative plural (d) accusative pluralFirst declension: -η, -ης, -ῃ, -ην in the singular; -αι, -ων, -αις, -ας in the plural.

13. Give every possible case and number for these Latin forms: (a) dominum (b) dominōrum (c) dominīs (d) puellam (e) puellae

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(a) accusative singular (b) genitive plural (c) dative or ablative plural (d) accusative singular (e) genitive singular, dative singular, or nominative (also vocative) plural (f) accusative singularLatin endings often have more than one possible meaning; the rest of the sentence decides which.

14. ἔργα (works) and verba (words) are both plural. Which statement explains their endings?

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(b) Neuter plurals end in -α (Greek) and -a (Latin) in the nominative and accusativeThe neuter rule: the nominative and accusative are always alike, and the plural ends in -α / -a.

15. Match each form of the Greek article with its description.

τοῦ
τῇ
τόν
τούς
τά
αἱ
τῶν
τῷ

nominative or accusative plural neuter
dative singular, masculine or neuter
accusative plural masculine
genitive singular, masculine or neuter
genitive plural, all three genders
accusative singular masculine
nominative plural feminine
dative singular feminine

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1–d, 2–h, 3–f, 4–c, 5–a, 6–g, 7–e, 8–b (τοῦ = genitive singular, masculine or neuter; τῇ = dative singular feminine; τόν = accusative singular masculine; τούς = accusative plural masculine; τά = nominative or accusative plural neuter; αἱ = nominative plural feminine; τῶν = genitive plural, all three genders; τῷ = dative singular, masculine or neuter)

16. Supply the right form of the article (it must agree in case, number and gender): (a) ___ λόγοι (b) ___ ἔργα (nominative) (c) ___ καρδίᾳ (d) ___ ἀνθρώπων

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(a) οἱ λόγοι (b) τὰ ἔργα (c) τῇ καρδίᾳ (d) τῶν ἀνθρώπωνλόγοι nominative plural masculine; ἔργα nominative plural neuter; καρδίᾳ dative singular feminine; ἀνθρώπων genitive plural masculine.

17. Match each present-tense form of εἰμί (I am) with the Latin form of sum that means the same.

εἰμί
εἶ
ἐστί(ν)
ἐσμέν
ἐστέ
εἰσί(ν)

sumus
sum
es
est
sunt
estis

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1–b, 2–c, 3–d, 4–a, 5–f, 6–e (εἰμί = sum; εἶ = es; ἐστί(ν) = est; ἐσμέν = sumus; ἐστέ = estis; εἰσί(ν) = sunt)

18. Translate, and give the person and number: (a) ἐσμέν (b) εἰσίν (c) estis (d) sum

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(a) we are, 1st person plural (b) they are, 3rd person plural (c) you (plural) are, 2nd person plural (d) I am, 1st person singular

19. In John 1:1, Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος / In principiō erat Verbum, the verbs ἦν and erat are:

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(b) imperfect, 3rd person singular, “was”ἦν is the imperfect of εἰμί; erat is the imperfect of sum.

20. Greek λύομεν, λύετε, λύουσι(ν) (we, you all, they loose) match Latin amāmus, amātis, amant (we, you all, they love). Which Latin ending matches each Greek ending -μεν, -τε, -ουσι(ν)?

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-μεν = -mus; -τε = -tis; -ουσι(ν) = -ntThe endings come from the same ancestor language.

21. In Ἐν ἀρχῇ (Greek) and In principiō (Latin), what case follows each preposition?

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(a) dative in Greek, ablative in LatinGreek has no ablative; its dative does this job. Latin “in” with the ablative means “in”, with the accusative “into”.

22. Which case does Latin have that Greek does not?

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(c) ablativeLatin has six cases; Greek has five and splits the ablative’s jobs between the genitive (“from”) and the dative (“by, with, in”).

23. ὁ κύων δάκνει τὸν ἄνθρωπον and τὸν ἄνθρωπον δάκνει ὁ κύων: who bites whom in each sentence, and how can you tell?

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In both sentences the dog bites the man.ὁ κύων is nominative (the subject); τὸν ἄνθρωπον is accusative (the object). Endings, not word order, carry the meaning.

24. Latin has no word for “the” or “a”. Give two ways to translate verbum bonum, then translate verbum bonum est.

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verbum bonum: “a good word” or “the good word”; verbum bonum est: “the word is good”.Context decides between “a” and “the”. Greek would say ὁ ἀγαθὸς λόγος (the good word) or ὁ λόγος ἀγαθός (the word is good).

25. Match each Greek pronoun with the Latin pronoun that does the same job.

ἐγώ
σύ
ἡμεῖς
ὑμεῖς
αὐτός (“-self”)
οὗτος
ἐκεῖνος
τίς

tū
ego
ipse
ille
nōs
quis
hic
vōs

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1–b, 2–a, 3–e, 4–h, 5–c, 6–g, 7–d, 8–f (ἐγώ = ego; σύ = tū; ἡμεῖς = nōs; ὑμεῖς = vōs; αὐτός (“-self”) = ipse; οὗτος = hic; ἐκεῖνος = ille; τίς = quis)

26. λόγος and verbum both mean “word”. What about their gender?

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(c) λόγος is masculine, verbum is neuterGrammatical gender belongs to the word, not the thing, and the two languages can differ.

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