Ohio, April 1906

Bones are made of animal matter (about one third, a tough, gelatin-like substance that gives toughness and elasticity) and mineral or earthy matter (about two thirds, chiefly phosphate of lime, with some carbonate of lime, which gives hardness). Foods that help nourish them: milk, eggs, whole wheat or oatmeal, and vegetables.

Then: Texts liked to note that children's bones have more animal matter (so bend rather than break) and old people's more mineral matter (so are brittle).

Now: "Phosphate of lime" is calcium phosphate (as hydroxyapatite). Modern advice would add vitamin D (sunlight, fortified foods) and leafy green vegetables for calcium.

Study: The chapter on the bones in a period physiology, such as Overton's or Steele's Hygienic Physiology.

The skin has two layers. The outer layer (epidermis, or cuticle, or scarf skin) is thin, has no blood vessels or nerves, and is constantly worn away and renewed. The inner layer (dermis, or true skin) contains blood vessels, nerves, sweat glands, oil glands, and the roots of the hair and nails. The skin protects the body, is the organ of touch, helps control the body's heat by sweating, and gives off waste matter in the perspiration. Frequent bathing is needed to wash away the sweat, oil, dead scales, and dirt that collect on it, to keep the pores open and the skin able to do its work, and to keep the body clean and healthy.

Then: Books of the time stressed that clogged pores would stop the skin from doing its "excretory" work and throw extra labor on the kidneys and lungs.

Now: We now know the skin's waste-removing role is minor; bathing matters mostly for removing dirt and germs, preventing infection and odor.

Study: The chapter on the skin in a period physiology.

The nose (nasal passages), pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi and their smaller branches (bronchial tubes), and the lungs with their air cells. The diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs work the breathing.

Now: The air cells are now called alveoli.

Study: The chapter on respiration in a period physiology.

Blood from an artery is bright red and comes in spurts. Press hard on the artery between the wound and the heart (with the fingers, or a pad and a tight bandage), or tie a handkerchief around the limb above the wound, knot it over a smooth stone or pad, and twist it tight with a stick (a tourniquet). Raise the injured part and send for a doctor at once.

Now: Current first-aid advice: call 911; press firmly and directly on the wound with a cloth and keep pressing; use a tourniquet (above the wound, on an arm or leg) only for severe, life-threatening bleeding that pressure does not stop, and note the time it was put on.

Study: The emergencies chapter of a period physiology; today, American Red Cross first-aid guidance.

Any three of: saliva (from the salivary glands, acts on starch), gastric juice (in the stomach, acts on proteins), pancreatic juice (from the pancreas, acts on starch, fats, and proteins), bile (from the liver, helps digest fats), and intestinal juice.

Study: The chapter on digestion in a period physiology.

The kidneys lie at the back of the abdomen, one on each side of the spine, at about the level of the lowest ribs (the "small of the back"). The chief office of the liver is to secrete bile, which helps digest fats; it also stores sugar as "animal starch" (glycogen) and helps remove impurities from the blood.

Now: We now know the liver has many more jobs: breaking down drugs and poisons, making blood proteins, and storing vitamins and iron.

Study: Period physiology, chapters on digestion and excretion.

Dark (impure) blood from the body returns through the veins to the right auricle of the heart, passes to the right ventricle, and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. There it gives off carbonic acid gas and takes up oxygen, becoming bright red. It returns through the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, passes to the left ventricle, and is pumped out through the aorta and arteries to all parts of the body. In the tiny capillaries it gives up nourishment and oxygen to the tissues and takes up waste, and then flows back through the veins to the heart.

Then: The upper chambers were called "auricles"; carbon dioxide was called "carbonic acid gas."

Now: The upper chambers are now called atria.

Study: The chapter on circulation in a period physiology.

Retina: the thin, delicate inner lining at the back of the eyeball, made of nerve tissue, on which images are formed; it is the expansion of the optic nerve. Tympanum: the drum of the ear, the membrane across the inner end of the ear canal (the word was also used for the middle ear, the small cavity behind it). Humerus: the bone of the upper arm, from shoulder to elbow. Olfactory nerves: the nerves of smell, spread in the lining of the upper part of the nose and passing up to the brain. Lymph: a clear, colorless fluid that comes from the blood and bathes the tissues; it is collected by the lymphatic vessels and returned to the blood by a duct that empties into a large vein near the neck. Triceps: the large muscle on the back of the upper arm, which straightens the elbow.

Study: Period physiology, chapters on the senses, bones, muscles, and circulation.

The vital organs are those necessary to life: chiefly the brain, heart, and lungs (many books also counted the stomach, liver, and kidneys). Effect of alcohol on one, for example the liver: long use causes it to harden and shrink ("hobnail liver," now called cirrhosis). Or the brain: alcohol dulls the judgment and self-control, and long use damages the nerve cells. Or the heart: it weakens the heart muscle.

Then: By this time nearly every state required schools to teach the effects of alcohol and tobacco ("scientific temperance instruction"), so an answer like this was always expected on physiology exams.

Now: These effects are confirmed by modern medicine.

Study: The temperance sections that ran through every period physiology text.

Any three: read and work only in a good, steady light, not too dim or glaring and not flickering; have the light come from behind or over the left shoulder, not shining in the eyes; hold the book about 12 to 14 inches from the eyes; do not read lying down or while riding in a jolting car; rest the eyes often by looking at distant objects; do not rub the eyes or touch them with dirty hands or towels; protect them from dust and the direct sun; see a doctor if they ache or vision blurs.

Now: Today screen-time breaks (the "20-20-20" rule) would be added.

Study: The chapter on the eye in a period physiology.

An exact, neat copy, keeping the capitals at the start of every line and the punctuation. The poem as usually printed (from Felicia Hemans's "The Hour of Death"): "Leaves have their time to fall, / And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath, / And stars to set; but all, / Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death!" followed by the author's name. Check: each line starts with a capital; apostrophe in "wind's"; the exclamation point; the dash before the author's name; neat, even penmanship.

Then: The OCR copy used here ends the first two lines with periods and the third with a dash; usual printings of the poem have commas there, and the third line is often printed "And stars to set—but all,". The exam sheet itself has not been checked, so let the child copy what is printed on the sheet in front of them.

Study: Any copybook of the time (Spencerian or vertical writing); the poem appears in many period readers.

There is no written answer; this was an oral test. Examiners listened for correct pronunciation, clear and distinct speaking, natural expression and phrasing, proper attention to punctuation (pauses), and understanding of what was read (pupils were often asked to explain the meaning of a passage or a word).

Study: Any graded reader of the time (McGuffey's Fifth or Sixth Reader).

Syntax is the part of grammar that treats of the relation, agreement, and arrangement of words in sentences. Appositives: a noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun meaning the same thing is in the same case ("Paul, the apostle, wrote this"; "I saw Mr. Brown, the teacher"). Pronouns: a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender ("Every pupil must bring his book"). The verb "to be": the verb "to be" takes the same case after it as before it ("It is I"; "I took him to be her").

Now: Today "Every pupil must bring their book" is widely accepted, and "It's me" is normal in speech, but "It is I" is still the formal rule.

Study: Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, or Harvey's English Grammar, the rules of syntax.

Any three: (1) at the end of a line, to divide a word that is carried over, only between syllables (ex-am-i-na-tion); (2) to join the parts of a compound word (father-in-law, self-control); (3) to join the parts of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, and fractions written as words (forty-two, two-thirds); (4) to join words used together as one adjective before a noun (a well-known author); (5) after a prefix, to separate two vowels that would otherwise run together (re-enter, co-operate).

Now: Many words hyphenated in 1906 are now written solid (today, tomorrow, cooperate, and often reenter).

Study: The punctuation chapter of Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English.

Complex (one main clause plus a dependent clause): "Because gusts of wind and a pouring rain came on, our party was compelled to seek shelter indoors." Compound (two independent clauses): "Gusts of wind arose and a pouring rain fell, and our party was compelled to seek shelter indoors" (or "The wind blew in gusts and the rain poured, so our party sought shelter indoors"). Any version that keeps the meaning and has the right structure is correct.

Study: Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, lessons on transforming sentences.

"To sink," active voice, indicative mode, future perfect tense: Singular: I shall have sunk; thou wilt have sunk (you will have sunk); he will have sunk. Plural: we shall have sunk; you will have sunk; they will have sunk. "To work," passive voice, subjunctive mode, past tense: Singular: (if) I were worked; (if) thou wert worked (you were worked); (if) he were worked. Plural: (if) we were worked; (if) you were worked; (if) they were worked.

Then: Grammars then used "mode" for "mood" and always included the "thou" forms in conjugations.

Now: Today most Americans say "I will have sunk." The past subjunctive survives mostly in "if I were" (If I were worked harder...).

Study: The conjugation tables in Harvey's English Grammar or Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons.

A verb asserts: it makes a statement and can be the predicate of a sentence ("The bird sings"). A participle does not assert; it is a form of the verb that only assumes or implies the action, and is used as an adjective (or noun) ("the singing bird"). A participle cannot by itself form a predicate.

Now: Today a participle is called a non-finite verb form.

Study: Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, the lessons on participles.

Sample: "Route 2, Lancaster, Ohio, April 21, 1906. / The Youth's Companion, Boston, Mass. / Gentlemen: / I enclose a post-office money order for one dollar and seventy-five cents ($1.75), for which please renew my subscription to The Youth's Companion for one year, beginning with the May number. Please send the paper to the address above. / Yours truly, / Mary E. Smith." Check for: heading (address and date), inside address, salutation with a colon, a clear body stating the amount (in words and figures) and the form of payment (money order, bank draft, check, or postage stamps), a courteous closing, signature, correct capitals and punctuation, and neat writing.

Then: This one item was worth two questions' credit (6 and 7). A money order or bank draft was the safe way to send money by mail; small sums were sometimes sent in stamps.

Study: The letter-writing lessons in Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English.

Simple future: use "shall" with the first person (I shall, we shall) and "will" with the second and third (you will, he will, they will). To show determination, promise, or command, reverse them: "I will" (I am determined), "you shall" or "he shall" (I promise, or I command). In questions, use the form expected in the answer: "Shall you go?" (I shall). The sentence printed after this question goes with questions 8 and 9.

Then: Note the question mark in the printed sentence is outside the quotation marks ("Were you not expecting me"?). It should be inside: "Were you not expecting me?" This may be a printing or transcription error, or possibly a deliberate trap.

Now: In American English "will" is now used for all persons; "shall" survives mostly in offers ("Shall I open the window?") and legal writing.

Study: Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, or Harvey's, on shall and will.

Sentence: "Without knocking, he opened the door and entered so softly that I was not conscious of his presence until he said, 'Were you not expecting me?'" (1) "he opened the door and entered so softly": the principal (independent) clause, with a compound predicate (some grammars treat "he opened the door" and "[he] entered so softly" as two coordinate principal clauses). (2) "that I was not conscious of his presence": an adverbial clause of degree (result), modifying the adverb "so" (or "so softly"). (3) "until he said ...": an adverbial clause of time, modifying "was" (the predicate "was conscious"). (4) "Were you not expecting me?": a noun (substantive) clause, a direct quotation, object of "said."

Then: The sentence is therefore complex (or compound-complex if the two predicates are counted as separate clauses).

Study: Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, analysis and diagramming of clauses.

Cannot be answered for certain: the transcription does not show which words were in black (bold) type, so the scan must be checked. For practice, sample parsings from the sentence above: "knocking": a participial noun (gerund), object of the preposition "without." "softly": adverb of manner, modifies "entered." "that": subordinate conjunction, introduces the clause "I was not conscious...". "conscious": adjective, predicate adjective after "was," describing "I." "presence": common noun, singular, neuter, objective case, object of "of." "until": subordinate conjunction (conjunctive adverb), introduces the time clause. "expecting": present participle, part of the progressive verb "were expecting."

Then: "Parse" meant to name the part of speech, its properties (number, case, tense, and so on), and its use in the sentence.

Study: Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English or Harvey's English Grammar, on parsing.

The standard textbook answer of 1906 named five races, each with a color label and an example people: the Caucasian or white race (for example, the English or Germans); the Mongolian or yellow race (the Chinese or Japanese); the Ethiopian or black race (the peoples of central Africa, such as the Congo peoples); the Malay or brown race (the Malays or Filipinos); and the American or red race (American Indians, such as the Sioux).

Then: This five-part scheme came from the 18th-century writer Blumenbach and appeared in nearly every school geography of the time, usually with value judgments ranking the groups that are wrong and offensive.

Now: Modern science does not divide people into races this way. Human genetic variation is gradual and overlapping, and these categories are not biologically meaningful. This answer is given only as a record of what was taught.

Study: The "races of men" page in a period geography (e.g., Frye's or Redway's); for today's view, any recent biology or anthropology text.

Latitude is distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees. Longitude is distance east or west of a chosen prime meridian (usually that of Greenwich, England), measured in degrees. The North Pole is in latitude 90 degrees north; it has no longitude (all the meridians meet there, so it may be said to be in every longitude).

Then: Some American books of the time also measured longitude from Washington, D.C.

Study: The opening chapter of a period geography.

The torrid zone is about 47 degrees wide (from the Tropic of Cancer, 23 1/2 degrees north, to the Tropic of Capricorn, 23 1/2 degrees south), roughly 3,200 miles. Through South America the equator crosses Ecuador (just north of Quito), the southern edge of Colombia, and northern Brazil, reaching the Atlantic near the mouth of the Amazon. Or, through Africa, from west to east: the French Congo (Gabon), the Congo Free State, Lake Victoria, British East Africa (Uganda and Kenya), and Italian Somaliland, to the Indian Ocean.

Now: In Africa the countries are now Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, and Somalia (plus Sao Tome and Principe offshore). The tropics are now placed at about 23.44 degrees.

Study: A period geography's maps of South America and Africa; a modern atlas for today's countries.

A gulf is a large arm of the sea extending into the land, usually larger and deeper than a bay. A bay is a smaller arm of the sea, usually with a wide opening. A sound is a long, narrow body of water, often connecting two larger bodies or lying between the mainland and an island. Puget Sound: in northwestern Washington, an inlet of the Pacific (through the Strait of Juan de Fuca), with Seattle and Tacoma on it. Gulf of Aden: between southern Arabia and the eastern horn of Africa (Somaliland), connecting the Red Sea with the Arabian Sea. Bay of Biscay: an arm of the Atlantic west of France and north of Spain.

Then: Textbook definitions were not sharp; actual names do not always follow size (the Bay of Bengal is larger than many gulfs).

Study: The definitions page and maps of a period geography.

Rivers: the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Parana (or Rio de la Plata system; the Sao Francisco also counts). Those flowing to the Pacific are short and small because the Andes Mountains run close to the west coast, leaving only a narrow slope, so the rivers have little distance to gather water; much of the west coast (Peru and northern Chile) also gets very little rain.

Study: The South America chapter in a period geography.

Route: from Constantinople through the Sea of Marmora, the Dardanelles, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean to Port Said; through the Suez Canal and the Red Sea; through the Strait of Bab el Mandeb, the Gulf of Aden, and the Arabian Sea to Bombay. Cargo: any reasonable Turkish exports, such as dried fruits (figs, raisins), tobacco, rugs and carpets, olive oil, mohair, and attar of roses; or, on the return, cotton, rice, tea, spices, and jute from India.

Then: The examiners would accept any sensible cargo; the route through the Suez Canal is the key point.

Now: Constantinople is now Istanbul, Turkey; Bombay is now Mumbai, India; the Sea of Marmora is spelled Marmara.

Study: Period geography, chapters on Turkey, India, and the commerce of the Mediterranean.

Oil wells: the Lima and Findlay region of northwestern Ohio (also around Marietta in the southeast). Coal mines: the Hocking Valley (Nelsonville, Athens County), and Perry, Jackson, and Belmont counties. Vineyards: the Lake Erie shore and islands (Sandusky, Kelleys Island, Put-in-Bay). Tobacco fields: the Miami Valley (Darke and Montgomery counties) and Brown County along the Ohio River. Potteries: East Liverpool, and Zanesville and nearby Roseville and Crooksville.

Then: An Ohio pupil could name any correct locality, often one near home.

Study: An Ohio supplement to a period geography (many geographies printed state editions).

A thermometer tells how hot or cold something is (the temperature). A barometer tells the pressure (weight) of the air; a falling barometer usually means stormy weather is coming and a rising one fair weather, and it can also be used to measure heights.

Study: The chapter on the atmosphere in a period geography.

Bounded on the north by Oregon; on the east by Nevada and Arizona (the Colorado River forms part of the Arizona line); on the south by Mexico (Lower California); and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. A lake: Lake Tahoe (on the Nevada line) or Clear Lake or Salton Sea area. A desert: the Mojave (Mohave) Desert in the southeast, or the Colorado Desert, or Death Valley. A city: San Francisco (on San Francisco Bay), Los Angeles (in the south), or Sacramento (the capital, on the Sacramento River).

Then: In April 1906 Arizona was still a territory. The San Francisco earthquake struck on April 18, three days before this exam.

Now: Arizona became a state in 1912. The Salton Sea filled in 1905-07 by accident, so in April 1906 it was newly forming; Lake Tahoe is the safest answer.

Study: The California pages of a period geography.

Any three: Montreal, the largest city, on an island in the St. Lawrence River in Quebec province; Toronto, on Lake Ontario, in Ontario; Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion, on the Ottawa River in Ontario; Quebec, on the St. Lawrence; Winnipeg, in Manitoba, the wheat center of the West; Halifax, Nova Scotia, an Atlantic port; Vancouver, British Columbia, the Pacific port.

Study: The Canada chapter of a period geography.

Ferdinand De Soto: explored the southeastern part of the present United States, from Florida west to the Mississippi River, which he reached in 1541, under the flag of Spain. Henry Hudson: explored the Hudson River (1609) under the flag of the Dutch (Holland, for the Dutch East India Company); on a later voyage (1610), under the English flag, he explored Hudson Bay. Jacques Cartier: explored the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence (1534-1535), as far as the site of Montreal, under the flag of France.

Study: Period U.S. history, chapters on Spanish, Dutch, and French exploration.

Lord Baltimore founded Maryland, on Chesapeake Bay, in 1634 (first settlement at St. Mary's), as a refuge for English Catholics, who were persecuted at home, and as a source of income for his family; the colony became known for its Toleration Act (1649). James Oglethorpe founded Georgia in 1733 (first settlement at Savannah), as a refuge for poor debtors from English prisons and as a buffer to protect the Carolinas from the Spanish in Florida.

Then: The charter was granted to George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, who died in 1632; his son Cecilius (Cecil) Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, actually founded the colony. Either is accepted as "Lord Baltimore."

Now: Historians note that few debtors actually settled Georgia, though the plan is the textbook answer.

Study: Period U.S. history, chapters on the founding of the colonies.

Laws passed in 1798, under President John Adams, by the Federalist Congress during a quarrel with France. The Naturalization Act raised the residence required for citizenship from 5 to 14 years; the Alien Acts let the President expel or imprison foreigners considered dangerous; the Sedition Act made it a crime to write or speak "false, scandalous and malicious" statements against the government, Congress, or the President. Opinion: most pupils (and most historians) would say they were unjust, because the Sedition Act punished free speech and a free press, and editors were jailed for criticizing the President; they were also used to hurt the opposing party. A pupil could argue they were justified as wartime safety measures, if well reasoned.

Then: The laws led to Jefferson's and Madison's Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions and helped elect Jefferson in 1800. The Sedition Act expired in 1801.

Now: The Alien Enemies Act (one of the Alien Acts) is still law today and has been used in wartime and in recent years.

Study: Period U.S. history, the administration of John Adams.

Key points: The Ordinance of 1787 organized the Northwest Territory and banned slavery there. The Ohio Company of Associates, New England veterans led by General Rufus Putnam, founded Marietta, the first permanent American settlement, at the mouth of the Muskingum on April 7, 1788. Cincinnati (first called Losantiville) was founded late in 1788, and became the territorial capital (Arthur St. Clair, governor). Indian resistance defeated Harmar (1790) and St. Clair (1791), but Anthony Wayne won at Fallen Timbers (1794), and the Treaty of Greenville (1795) opened most of Ohio to settlement. Moses Cleaveland founded Cleveland (1796) in the Connecticut Western Reserve, and Virginians settled the Virginia Military District, founding Chillicothe (1796). Ohio became a state in 1803 with Chillicothe as its capital.

Then: A pupil might also mention the earlier Moravian missions such as Schoenbrunn (1772) and the Gnadenhutten massacre (1782).

Study: A period Ohio history (many U.S. histories had Ohio supplements); today, the Ohio History Connection.

George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison. Under Jefferson: the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the Lewis and Clark expedition, Ohio's admission (1803), or the Embargo Act (1807). Under Madison: the War of 1812 with Great Britain.

Study: Period U.S. history, the early administrations.

Burgoyne's plan was to march south from Canada along Lake Champlain and the Hudson, meeting Howe from New York and St. Leger from the west, to cut New England off from the other colonies. It failed because: Howe went to take Philadelphia instead of coming up the Hudson; St. Leger was turned back at Fort Stanwix; a large detachment sent for supplies was beaten at Bennington by Stark's militia; his march through the forest was slowed by felled trees and broken bridges, and his supplies ran short; and the American army under Gates kept growing as militia poured in. Defeated at Freeman's Farm and Bemis Heights, surrounded and outnumbered, he surrendered his whole army at Saratoga on October 17, 1777. The victory brought France into the war on the American side.

Then: Benedict Arnold's bravery in the Saratoga battles was often mentioned, with regret.

Study: Period U.S. history, the campaign of 1777.

Andrew Johnson became President when Lincoln was assassinated in April 1865 and served until 1869. He offered the Southern states easy terms to return (his Reconstruction plan), which led to a bitter quarrel with Congress, controlled by the Radical Republicans. He vetoed the Freedmen's Bureau and Civil Rights bills, and Congress passed them over his vetoes. The Thirteenth Amendment (abolishing slavery) was ratified in 1865 and the Fourteenth was proposed in 1866. Congress passed its own Reconstruction Acts (1867), putting the South under military rule, and the Tenure of Office Act. When Johnson removed Secretary of War Stanton, the House impeached him (1868); the Senate acquitted him by one vote. Also: Alaska was bought from Russia (1867), and the French were persuaded to leave Mexico.

Now: Historians today generally judge Johnson harshly for opposing rights for freed people; 1906 textbooks varied in their sympathy.

Study: Period U.S. history, the Reconstruction chapter.

McKinley (1897-1901), any two: the Spanish-American War (1898), which freed Cuba and gave the U.S. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines; the annexation of Hawaii (1898); the Dingley Tariff (1897); the Gold Standard Act (1900); the Open Door policy in China; his assassination at Buffalo (1901). Roosevelt (1901 to the time of the exam), any two: the treaty with Panama and the start of the Panama Canal (1903-04); settling the anthracite coal strike (1902); the Northern Securities suit against trusts; creating the Department of Commerce and Labor (1903); helping end the Russo-Japanese War with the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905).

Then: At exam time (April 1906) Roosevelt was still in office. The Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act (June 1906) and his Nobel Peace Prize (December 1906) came after this exam.

Study: A recent (1905-06) edition of a U.S. history, or newspapers of the day.

The question almost certainly means "to become a citizen" (naturalization). In 1906: (1) declare, before a court, the intention of becoming a citizen ("first papers") at least two years before admission; (2) live in the United States for five years (and one year in the state); (3) prove good moral character and attachment to the Constitution; (4) renounce allegiance to any foreign ruler and take an oath of allegiance in court, receiving "second papers" (citizenship).

Then: Simply to live here, an immigrant only had to arrive and pass inspection at a port such as Ellis Island; certain people were excluded (the sick, paupers, contract laborers, and, under the Chinese Exclusion laws, most Chinese). Federal law also limited naturalization to white persons and persons of African descent. A new naturalization law (June 1906) passed after this exam and added a requirement to speak English.

Now: Today an immigrant usually first becomes a lawful permanent resident (green card holder), then may apply for citizenship after five years (three if married to a citizen), passing English and civics tests and taking the oath. Racial limits were removed by 1952.

Study: Period civics texts on naturalization; today, the USCIS website.

George Dewey: in the Spanish-American War, on May 1, 1898, he destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay, in the Philippines, without losing a man in battle. John Paul Jones: naval hero of the Revolution; in the Bonhomme Richard he captured the British ship Serapis (September 23, 1779), answering a call to surrender with "I have not yet begun to fight." Oliver Hazard Perry: in the War of 1812 he defeated and captured the British fleet on Lake Erie (September 10, 1813), near Put-in-Bay, Ohio, reporting "We have met the enemy and they are ours"; this saved the Northwest for the United States.

Study: Period U.S. history, chapters on the Revolution, the War of 1812, and the Spanish War.

Accent is the greater force of voice given to one syllable of a word (pres'ent, pre-sent'). Emphasis is the greater force of voice given to a word or phrase in a sentence, to bring out its meaning ("I did not say HE took it").

Study: The opening lessons of a period speller or orthography text.

Aspirate: a breath sound, made without voice (as h, or p, t, k, f, s); the letter h in particular was often called "the aspirate." Dissyllable: a word of two syllables (pa-per, sis-ter). Diphthong: two vowel sounds joined in one syllable, as oi in "oil," ou in "out."

Now: Aspirates are now called voiceless consonants. "Dissyllable" is also spelled "disyllable."

Study: The sound-classification lessons in a period orthography text.

Rules: (1) put a period after every abbreviation; (2) begin an abbreviation with a capital if the full word begins with one (and use capitals for titles and proper names). Others accepted: use only standard abbreviations; avoid them in formal writing. Abbreviations: Junior = Jr.; railroad = R.R.; acre = A. (or a.); Missouri = Mo.; noon = M. (from Latin meridies, as in "12 M.").

Now: Today: Jr.; RR; ac.; MO (postal) or Mo.; and "noon" is simply written out (or 12 p.m.). The period is often dropped in all-capital abbreviations.

Study: The table of abbreviations in a period speller or Webster's dictionary.

Using Webster's marks (accent mark after the stressed syllable): al-lege' (al-lĕj'; g soft); suf-fice' (suf-fīz' in Webster's then, the c sounding like z; now usually suh-FICE with an s sound); di'a-mond (dī'a-mond; three syllables); co-erce' (kō-ẽrs'); greas'y (grēs'y or grēz'y; dictionaries allowed both); ac-cede' (ăk-sēd'); kiln (one syllable, kĭl; the n was silent in the preferred pronunciation then); said (sĕd); cheese (chēz); loose (lōōs; the s sounds as s, not z, unlike "lose").

Then: Older Webster's dictionaries are believed to have given "sŭf-fīz'" and "kĭl" as the preferred pronunciations (worth checking against an 1890 or 1900 Webster's before relying on it); pupils who marked kiln with the n sounded may still have been accepted.

Now: Today "kiln" is usually said with the n, "suffice" with an s sound, and "diamond" often in two syllables (DI-mund).

Study: The pronunciation key and entries in Webster's International Dictionary (1890, 1900 supplement).

Correct spellings: millennium (two l's and two n's; the exam's "Millenium" is a misspelling, either in the printing or in the OCR), academy, lettuce, gorgeous, fusion, abbreviate, pitiless, aghast, conceit, chapel, reprieve, abscess, calcium, precious, Hawaii, able-bodied, extol, pleasurable, solos, amethyst.

Then: "Extoll" was also an accepted spelling then. Hawaii had been a U.S. territory since 1900 (annexed 1898), so it was a current-events word. Since the words were read aloud by the examiner, pupils never saw the printed misspelling.

Study: The spelling lists in a period speller; check with any modern dictionary.

A factor is one of two or more numbers that, multiplied together, produce a given number (3 and 4 are factors of 12). A power is the product of a number used as a factor two or more times (8 is the third power of 2, since 2 x 2 x 2 = 8). The reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by that number (the reciprocal of 4 is 1/4; of 2/3 is 3/2).

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic or White's Complete Arithmetic, chapters on factoring, involution, and fractions.

1 5/7 days (12/7 days). Analysis: Since A can do the whole work in 3 days, in 1 day he can do 1/3 of it. Since B can do it in 4 days, in 1 day he can do 1/4 of it. Together in 1 day they can do 1/3 + 1/4 = 7/12 of it. Therefore it will take them as many days as 7/12 is contained in 12/12, which is 12/7 = 1 5/7 days. (Python: 1/(1/3 + 1/4) = 12/7.)

Then: "Analyze" meant to explain each step in full sentences beginning "Since..." and ending "Therefore..."; the written reasoning counted, not just the number.

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Analysis.

$128. Method: 10 acres x 160 square rods = 1,600 square rods; each side = square root of 1,600 = 40 rods; distance around = 4 x 40 = 160 rods; 160 x $0.80 = $128. (Python: sqrt(1600)*4*0.8 = 128.)

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Mensuration and Square Root.

$2,941.18 invested in flour (commission $58.82). Method: the commission is 2% of the amount spent, so $3,000 = 102% of the investment; $3,000 / 1.02 = $2,941.18. (Python: 3000/1.02 = 2941.176.)

Then: This was the standard textbook form: the commission is figured on what is actually invested, not on the whole sum. If a child figures 2% of $3,000 ($60) and gets $2,940, they have used the other reading; the textbook answer is $2,941.18.

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Commission and Brokerage.

24.8 percent. Method: selling at 25 cents is 120% of cost, so cost = 25 / 1.20 = 20 5/6 cents; at 26 cents the gain is 26 - 20 5/6 = 5 1/6 cents; 5 1/6 / 20 5/6 = 0.248 = 24.8%. (Python: (26 - 25/1.2)/(25/1.2)*100 = 24.8.)

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Profit and Loss.

$20.88 (exactly $20.875). Method: 80 x 5 x 4 = 1,600 cubic feet; divided by 128 cubic feet in a cord = 12.5 cords; x $1.67 = $20.875. (Python: 80*5*4/128*1.67 = 20.875.)

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Mensuration (wood measure).

55.3 acres, that is, 55 acres 48 square rods. Method: 1 rod = 5 1/2 yards, so 402 rods 1 yard = 2,211 + 1 = 2,212 yards; area = 2,212 x 121 = 267,652 square yards; divided by 4,840 square yards per acre = 55.3 acres; 0.3 acre x 160 = 48 square rods. (Python: (402*5.5+1)*121/4840 = 55.3.)

Then: The numbers were chosen to come out evenly: 121 yards = 22 rods.

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Denominate Numbers (land measure).

$31.50. Method: carpet 27 in. = 2 1/4 ft. wide; the room is 15 ft. wide, so 15 / 2.25 = 6 2/3 strips, and 7 strips are needed (the extra is turned under or cut off); each strip is 18 ft. = 6 yards long; 7 x 6 = 42 yards; 42 x $0.75 = $31.50. (Python: ceil(15/2.25)*18/3*0.75 = 31.5.)

Then: Textbooks taught that carpet comes in whole strips, so you must buy 7, not 6 2/3. A child who ignores the waste gets 40 yards and $30.00; that is the less correct answer. Matching the pattern was ignored unless the question mentioned it.

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Mensuration (carpeting).

The child makes up a problem; the method is Hero's (Heron's) rule. Sample: "Find the area of a triangle whose sides are 13, 14, and 15 rods." Rule: from half the sum of the three sides subtract each side separately; multiply the half-sum and the three remainders together; the square root of the product is the area. Solution: half-sum = (13 + 14 + 15) / 2 = 21; remainders 8, 7, 6; 21 x 8 x 7 x 6 = 7,056; square root = 84 square rods. (Python: sqrt(21*8*7*6) = 84.) Check any child's own problem the same way.

Then: A good problem uses sides that can really form a triangle (each side shorter than the other two together) and numbers that give a whole-number answer.

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Mensuration (triangles) and Square Root.

$61,428.57, if "produce $860" means $860 of interest (the most likely reading). Method: 2 mo. 24 da. = 84 days; at 6% the interest on $1 for 84 days is $0.014 (the "six percent method": $0.01 per 2 months plus $0.001 per 6 days); $860 / 0.014 = $61,428.57. (Python: 860/(0.06*84/360) = 61428.57.)

Then: The wording is ambiguous. If "produce $860" means the principal plus interest (the "amount") is $860, then principal = $860 / 1.014 = $848.13 (Python: 860/1.014 = 848.126). Textbooks usually said "amount to" for the second kind, so the first reading is more likely, but the large answer is unusual; accept either if the child explains it.

Study: Ray's New Practical Arithmetic, Interest (problems in finding the principal).