HistoryThe Third Intermediate and Late Periods

Persian Rule

In 525 BC Cambyses of Persia conquered Egypt; Persian kings ruled it as the 27th Dynasty until 404 BC.

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The Saite kingdom fell to the largest empire the world had yet seen. In 525 BC the Persian king Cambyses II defeated Psamtek III at Pelusium, on Egypt's eastern edge, and took Memphis. Egypt became a province of the Persian Empire.

Key idea

Cambyses of Persia conquered Egypt in 525 BC; Persian kings ruled it as the 27th Dynasty until 404 BC. They ruled through a governor (a satrap) at Memphis and appeared in Egyptian temples as pharaohs.
The Late Period: the Saite Dynasty, the first Persian rule (27th Dynasty), the last native dynasties, and a second Persian rule before Alexander.

Two pictures of Cambyses

The Greek historian Herodotus, writing about 75 years later, describes Cambyses as cruel and mad: he says he killed the sacred Apis bull and mocked Egyptian gods. Egyptian evidence gives a different picture. An Apis bull that died in Cambyses' reign was buried with full honors, with an inscription naming him. And an Egyptian official, Udjahorresnet, says on his statue that he served Cambyses as an adviser, gave him an Egyptian throne name, and persuaded him to restore the temple of Neith at Sais.

Why it works

Each source had reasons for its picture. Herodotus heard stories in Egypt decades later, when memories of the conquest were bitter, and he wrote for Greeks who had fought Persia. Udjahorresnet had served the conquerors and wanted to show that he had done good for his gods and his town. Historians weigh both, together with the Apis burial and other documents.

Darius I and Persian rule

  • Darius I completed a canal linking the Nile to the Red Sea, set up stelae along it in Egyptian and in Persian cuneiform, and decorated a temple of Amun at Hibis in Kharga Oasis.
  • At Elephantine, papyri in Aramaic, the empire's official language, show a garrison of Jewish soldiers serving Persia.
  • Egyptians rebelled more than once, and in 404 BC they threw the Persians out.

Worked example: Weighing two sources

Herodotus says Cambyses killed the Apis bull. An Apis epitaph from his reign records a full, honored burial. How should a historian use these?
  1. The epitaph is a document from the time, made in Egypt.
  2. Herodotus wrote about 75 years later, from stories he heard.
  3. The contemporary document counts for more on this point, though Persian rule may still have been harsh in other ways.

Answer: Give more weight to the contemporary Egyptian evidence, while keeping both in view.

Common mistake

Repeating Herodotus's stories of Cambyses' cruelty as fact. Egyptian records of his reign paint a milder picture, and scholars weigh the two. A check: when was each source written, and by whom?

Practice

Pass with 3 right answers, the last 2 in a row. Each right answer earns 2 XP.

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Sources and further reading

  • Ian Shaw, ed., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford, 2000), ch. 13
  • Wikipedia, "Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt"
  • Wikipedia, "Cambyses II"
  • Wikipedia, "Udjahorresnet"
  • Wikipedia, "Elephantine papyri and ostraca"
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