Deserts protected Egypt on east and west, but they never cut it off. Across Sinai and along the coast ran roads to the Levant (today's Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria), and ships sailed up the coast to its ports. Beyond lay the great kingdoms of the Near East.
Key idea
Egypt traded with Byblos for cedar from the Old Kingdom on, ruled parts of Canaan in the New Kingdom, and dealt with the great powers in turn: Mitanni, the Hittites, Assyria, Babylon and Persia.
| Power | When | Egypt's dealings |
|---|---|---|
| Byblos | from the Old Kingdom | cedar and other timber for ships, coffins and temple doors |
| Mitanni | c. 1500–1350 BC | rival of Thutmose III, then ally; royal marriages with Amenhotep III |
| The Hittites | c. 1350–1180 BC | war at Kadesh, then a peace treaty |
| Assyria | c. 700–650 BC | invaded Egypt and sacked Thebes in 663 BC |
| Babylon | 7th–6th centuries BC | beat Necho II at Carchemish (605 BC) |
| Persia | 525 BC on | conquered Egypt twice |
Why it works
Egypt had grain and gold but almost no good timber, little silver, and no tin for bronze. The Levant and lands beyond had them. Trade made these goods flow; diplomacy kept the trade safe; and when a great power threatened the routes, war followed. The Amarna letters show how busy this world was.
A shared world
- Egyptian objects of Old Kingdom kings were dedicated in the temple of Byblos.
- In Sinai, at Serabit el-Khadim, workers in the Egyptian turquoise mines left some of the earliest known alphabetic inscriptions.
- Gods traveled too: Egyptians took up Levantine gods like Baal and Astarte in the New Kingdom.
- Diplomats wrote in Akkadian cuneiform and addressed each other as "brother".
Worked example: Why Byblos?
Why did Egypt keep trading with Byblos for more than two thousand years?
- Egypt had few tall trees; its own wood was poor for big ships and temple doors.
- The mountains behind Byblos had cedar forests.
- Byblos was a port, so the timber could be shipped by sea to Egypt.
Answer: For cedar, which Egypt lacked, shipped from a convenient port.
Common mistake
Treating Egypt as cut off by deserts. It was part of a busy world of trade and diplomacy, from Byblos to Babylon. A check: list the materials an Egyptian temple needed and where each came from.