An epigrapher's copy shows the wall as it is. An edition goes one step further: it gives the text in transliteration or translation, with the editor's restorations, and it uses brackets to show the reader exactly what is on the stone and what the editor supplied.
Key idea
Editions mark text that is lost but restored by the editor with square brackets [ ]; signs that are damaged but still partly visible with half brackets ⸢ ⸣; and words the ancient scribe left out, supplied by the editor, with angle brackets ⟨ ⟩. Curly braces { } mark signs the scribe wrote by mistake, which the editor would delete.
Why it works
Restoring a text is often possible, because Egyptian inscriptions repeat set formulas. The offering formula, for example, is so regular that a missing "Osiris" or "bread and beer" can be supplied with confidence. But a confident guess is still a guess. Brackets let a reader see at once how much of a sentence is evidence and how much is reconstruction, and decide how far to trust an argument built on it.
| Mark | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| [ ] | lost; restored by the editor | an offering that the king gives [to Osiris] |
| ⸢ ⸣ | damaged, but traces are visible | ⸢lord⸣ of Abydos |
| ⟨ ⟩ | left out by the scribe; added by the editor | that he may give ⟨bread⟩ and beer |
| { } | written by the scribe in error; to be ignored | to the spirit {spirit} of the official |
| […] | lost; not restored | the official […] |
These marks come from the conventions agreed by classical scholars at Leiden in 1931, which editors of Greek, Latin and Egyptian texts adapted. Details vary between editions, so check the key at the front of any edition you use.
Worked example: Reading an edited line
An edition reads: "an offering that the king gives [to Anubis], ⸢he who is upon⸣ his mountain, that he may give ⟨bread and⟩ beer". What is certain on the stone?
- "to Anubis" is in square brackets: it is lost and restored.
- "he who is upon" is in half brackets: damaged, but traces are visible.
- "bread and" is in angle brackets: the scribe never carved it; the editor added it.
- Fully certain: "an offering that the king gives", "his mountain", "that he may give" and "beer".
Answer: Only the unbracketed words are fully on the stone.
Worked example: Building on a restoration
A scholar argues that this stela was set up for Anubis's cult. The name "Anubis" appears only in square brackets. How strong is the argument?
- Square brackets mean the name is restored, not seen.
- The restoration may be good (Anubis often follows "the king gives" in this formula), but Osiris is just as common.
- An argument resting only on a restoration is weak until other evidence supports it.
Answer: Weak: it rests on a restoration.
Common mistake
Reading restored words as certain. Brackets show what the editor supplied. When you quote an edition, keep its brackets.