https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/Recent content in Earth Science on Teddy Rook Bookhttps://teddyrookbook.com/img/share.jpghttps://teddyrookbook.com/img/share.jpgHugoenhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/earth-systems/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/earth-systems/Sort the parts of Earth into geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere, and spot where they interact. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/latitude-longitude/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/latitude-longitude/Find any place on Earth by its degrees north or south of the equator and east or west of the prime meridian. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/topographic-maps/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/topographic-maps/Read elevations from contour lines, and tell steep slopes from gentle ones and hills from valleys. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/day-and-night/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/day-and-night/Earth turns once a day, so the Sun seems to rise in the east, cross the sky and set in the west. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/seasons/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/seasons/Earth's tilted axis changes the Sun's height in the sky and the length of the day through the year. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/moon-phases/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/moon-phases/Half the Moon is always lit by the Sun; as the Moon orbits Earth, we see different amounts of that lit half. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/eclipses/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/eclipses/An eclipse happens when the Sun, Earth and Moon line up, which the Moon's tilted orbit allows only a few times a year. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/gravity-orbits/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/gravity-orbits/Gravity pulls every mass toward every other mass; an orbit is falling around a body while moving sideways fast enough to keep missing it. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/tides/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/tides/The Moon's pull makes two bulges of ocean, so most coasts get two high tides and two low tides about every 24 hours 50 minutes. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/solar-system-objects/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/solar-system-objects/Tell the rocky inner planets from the giant outer planets, and place moons, dwarf planets, asteroids and comets. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/solar-system-scale/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/solar-system-scale/Use astronomical units and scale models to see how small the planets are and how far apart they lie. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/stars-galaxies/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/stars-galaxies/A light-year is a distance; the Sun is one ordinary star among hundreds of billions in the Milky Way galaxy. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/density/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/density/Density is mass per volume; it decides what floats and what sinks, and how Earth sorted itself into layers. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/earth-layers/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/earth-layers/The crust, mantle, outer core and inner core differ in what they are made of, how dense they are and whether they are solid or liquid. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/lithosphere-asthenosphere/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/lithosphere-asthenosphere/The rigid lithosphere, the crust plus the top of the mantle, rides on the hot, softer asthenosphere below. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/convection/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/convection/Warm fluid expands, becomes less dense and rises while cooler, denser fluid sinks, making a loop. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/what-is-a-mineral/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/what-is-a-mineral/A mineral is a natural, inorganic solid with a definite chemical makeup and an orderly crystal structure. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/mineral-properties/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/mineral-properties/Use hardness, streak, luster, cleavage and density to identify a mineral, since color can fool you. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/igneous-rocks/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/igneous-rocks/Igneous rock forms when melted rock cools; slow cooling underground grows large crystals, and fast cooling at the surface makes small ones. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/sedimentary-rocks/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/sedimentary-rocks/Sediments settle in layers, then are pressed together and cemented into rock; rocks made of grains are named by grain size. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/metamorphic-rocks/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/metamorphic-rocks/Heat and pressure change a rock's minerals and texture without melting it. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/rock-cycle/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/rock-cycle/Any rock can become any other kind through melting, weathering, burial, heat and pressure, driven by Earth's inner heat and the Sun. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/weathering/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/weathering/Rock breaks into smaller pieces (mechanical weathering) or changes into new substances (chemical weathering). Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/weathering-rates/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/weathering-rates/More surface area, more water and warmth, and minerals that break down easily make rock weather faster. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/soil/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/soil/Soil is weathered rock mixed with water, air and living and once-living matter, built up slowly in layers called horizons. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/erosion-deposition/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/erosion-deposition/Water, wind, ice and gravity carry sediment away and drop it where they slow down. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/landforms/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/landforms/Read a landscape: V-shaped valleys and deltas from rivers, U-shaped valleys and moraines from glaciers, dunes from wind. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/slow-and-fast-changes/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/slow-and-fast-changes/Tiny changes each year add up over millions of years, while a few changes, like landslides, happen in minutes. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/fossils/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/fossils/Fossils are remains or traces of past life, usually kept when remains are buried quickly in sediment. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/superposition/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/superposition/In layers that have not been disturbed, the oldest is at the bottom and the youngest is at the top. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/cross-cutting/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/cross-cutting/A fault or a body of igneous rock that cuts through other rock is younger than the rock it cuts. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/half-life/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/half-life/Radioactive atoms decay at a steady rate, so the fraction left tells a rock's age in years. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/geologic-time-scale/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/geologic-time-scale/Earth's 4.6-billion-year history is divided into eons, eras and periods, marked by big changes in life. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/continental-drift/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/continental-drift/Matching coastlines, fossils, rock layers and scratches from ancient ice show the continents were once joined. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/seafloor-spreading/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/seafloor-spreading/New ocean floor forms at mid-ocean ridges, so the rock gets older the farther it lies from a ridge. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/plate-boundaries/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/plate-boundaries/Plates pull apart at divergent boundaries, push together at convergent ones and slide past each other at transform ones. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/boundary-features/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/boundary-features/Match ridges, rift valleys, trenches, volcanic arcs, mountain ranges and long faults to the boundaries that make them. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/plate-motion-rates/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/plate-motion-rates/Plates move a few centimeters a year, which adds up to hundreds of kilometers over millions of years. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/seismic-waves/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/seismic-waves/Rock snaps along a fault and sends out P waves first, then S waves, then slower surface waves. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/earthquake-magnitude/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/earthquake-magnitude/Each step up in magnitude means waves 10 times taller on a seismogram and about 32 times more energy. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/volcanoes/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/volcanoes/Runny, low-silica lava builds broad shield volcanoes; sticky, gas-rich magma builds steep cones and erupts explosively. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/hot-spots/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/hot-spots/A plate sliding over a fixed hot spot leaves a line of volcanoes that get older with distance, which shows the plate's speed. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/hazard-forecasting/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/hazard-forecasting/Records and warning signs tell where hazards strike and how often, even when the exact day can't be known. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/water-distribution/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/water-distribution/About 97% of Earth's water is salty ocean; most fresh water is frozen in ice or held underground. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/water-cycle/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/water-cycle/Energy from the Sun lifts water by evaporation, and gravity brings it back down as precipitation and runoff. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/groundwater/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/groundwater/Rain soaks into spaces in soil and rock; below the water table they are full, and wells draw water from aquifers. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/air-composition/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/air-composition/Dry air is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% argon, with small but important amounts of carbon dioxide. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/atmosphere-layers/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/atmosphere-layers/Temperature falls, rises, falls and rises again with height, marking the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/air-pressure/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/air-pressure/Air has weight, so it presses on everything around it; pressure is highest at sea level and drops as you go up. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/wind/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/wind/Uneven heating makes differences in pressure, and air flows from high to low pressure, as in sea breezes by day and land breezes at night. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/global-winds/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/global-winds/Earth's spin bends moving air, turning the rising and sinking air of the tropics and poles into the trade winds, westerlies and polar easterlies. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/air-masses-fronts/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/air-masses-fronts/Large bodies of air take on the warmth and moisture of where they formed; where two meet, a front brings a change in weather. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/surface-currents/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/surface-currents/Steady winds drive surface currents into giant loops that carry warm water toward the poles and cool water toward the equator. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/deep-currents/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/deep-currents/Cold, salty water is dense and sinks near the poles, driving a slow current that winds through every ocean. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/weather-vs-climate/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/weather-vs-climate/Weather is the state of the air at a time and place; climate is the pattern of weather over 30 years or more. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/climate-factors/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/climate-factors/Latitude, elevation, distance from the sea, ocean currents and mountains together set a region's climate. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/greenhouse-effect/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/greenhouse-effect/Sunlight warms the ground, the ground gives off infrared light, and greenhouse gases absorb some of it and send part back down. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/climate-change-evidence/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/climate-change-evidence/Thermometer records, rising seas, shrinking ice and the rising carbon dioxide record show that Earth has warmed over the last century. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/natural-resources/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/natural-resources/Some resources renew within a human lifetime; others, like fossil fuels and metal ores, took millions of years to form where they are. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/human-impact/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/earth-and-space/earth-science/human-impact/Total use equals the number of people times the use per person, so growth in either one raises the impact. Earth Science · Earth & Space Ladder