https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/Recent content in General Chemistry 2 on Teddy Rook Bookhttps://teddyrookbook.com/img/share.jpghttps://teddyrookbook.com/img/share.jpgHugoenhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/reaction-rates/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/reaction-rates/A rate is the change in concentration per unit time, divided by each substance's coefficient so that every substance gives the same rate. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/rate-laws/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/rate-laws/rate = k[A]ᵐ[B]ⁿ, where the orders m and n are found by experiment. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/initial-rates/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/initial-rates/Compare experiments in which only one concentration changes to find each order, then k and its units. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/first-order/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/first-order/ln[A] falls in a straight line with time, and the half-life, t½ = 0.693/k, never changes. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/zero-second-order/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/zero-second-order/[A] or 1/[A] changes in a straight line with time, and the half-life depends on the starting concentration. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/graphical-order/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/graphical-order/Plot [A], ln[A] and 1/[A] against time; the straight one gives the order, and its slope gives k. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/arrhenius/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/arrhenius/k = Ae^(−Ea/RT), so rate constants at two temperatures reveal the activation energy. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/elementary-steps/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/elementary-steps/For a single elementary step, the rate law comes straight from its coefficients. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/mechanisms/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/mechanisms/The steps add up to the overall equation; intermediates are made and then used, and catalysts are used and then remade. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/rate-determining-step/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/rate-determining-step/When the first step is slow, its rate law is the rate law of the whole reaction. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/pre-equilibrium/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/pre-equilibrium/Set the forward and reverse rates of the fast step equal to replace an intermediate's concentration. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/multistep-energy-profiles/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/multistep-energy-profiles/Each step is a hump: intermediates sit in the valleys and transition states at the peaks. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/catalysis/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/catalysis/Homogeneous, heterogeneous and enzyme catalysts open a new mechanism with a lower barrier. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/equilibrium-expressions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/equilibrium-expressions/K is products over reactants, each raised to its coefficient, with pure solids and liquids left out. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/k-magnitude/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/k-magnitude/A large K means mostly products at equilibrium; a small K means mostly reactants. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/manipulating-k/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/manipulating-k/Reversing gives 1/K, multiplying by n gives Kⁿ, and adding reactions multiplies their K values. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/kp-kc/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/kp-kc/For gases, Kp = Kc(RT)^Δn, where Δn counts only moles of gas. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/reaction-quotient/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/reaction-quotient/Compare Q with K to see which way a reaction will go. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/calculating-k/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/calculating-k/Use the change in one amount and the coefficients to find every amount at equilibrium, then K. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/equilibrium-concentrations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/equilibrium-concentrations/Set up an ICE table and solve for x, using the quadratic formula when needed. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/small-x/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/small-x/When K is tiny, x is small next to the starting amount; check that it is under 5%. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/le-chatelier-quantitative/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/le-chatelier-quantitative/Changes in concentration or volume move Q away from K; only a temperature change alters K itself. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/strong-acid-ph/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/strong-acid-ph/Use logarithms to find the pH and pOH of any strong acid or base solution. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/ka-kb/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/ka-kb/Ka and Kb measure strength, pKa = −log Ka, and Ka × Kb = Kw for a conjugate pair. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/weak-acid-ph/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/weak-acid-ph/Solve Ka = x²/(C − x) for [H₃O⁺], then take the pH. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/percent-ionization/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/percent-ionization/The share of a weak acid that ionizes grows as the solution is diluted. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/weak-base-ph/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/weak-base-ph/Solve Kb for [OH⁻], then change pOH to pH. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/salt-solutions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/salt-solutions/Ions from weak acids or weak bases react with water and shift the pH. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/polyprotic-acids/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/polyprotic-acids/Each proton comes off with a much smaller Ka, so the first step sets the pH. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/acid-strength-structure/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/acid-strength-structure/Bond strength, bond polarity and resonance in the conjugate base explain which acids are stronger. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/buffers/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/buffers/A weak acid and its conjugate base use up added acid or base, so the pH barely moves. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/henderson-hasselbalch/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/henderson-hasselbalch/pH = pKa + log([A⁻]/[HA]) for a buffer. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/ph-pka-species/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/ph-pka-species/Below the pKa the acid form dominates; above it the base form does. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/buffer-additions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/buffer-additions/Do the neutralization stoichiometry first, then use the new ratio in the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/buffer-capacity/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/buffer-capacity/Pick an acid whose pKa is near the pH you want; more of both parts means more capacity. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/strong-titration-curves/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/strong-titration-curves/Find the pH before, at and after the equivalence point. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/weak-titration-curves/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/weak-titration-curves/Halfway to equivalence the pH equals the pKa, and at equivalence the pH is above 7. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/indicators/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/indicators/Choose an indicator whose color change falls on the steep part of the titration curve. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/ksp/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/ksp/Ksp describes a slightly soluble salt in equilibrium with its ions, and gives its molar solubility. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/comparing-solubility/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/comparing-solubility/Ksp ranks solubility directly only for salts that release the same number of ions. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/common-ion/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/common-ion/A salt dissolves less in a solution that already holds one of its ions. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/precipitation-q/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/precipitation-q/Compare Q with Ksp after mixing, remembering that mixing dilutes both solutions. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/ph-solubility/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/ph-solubility/Salts with basic anions, such as hydroxides and carbonates, dissolve better in acid. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/complex-ions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/complex-ions/Metal ions accept electron pairs from ligands, and Kf measures how tightly the complex holds together. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/entropy-microstates/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/entropy-microstates/Entropy counts the ways to arrange particles and energy: S = k ln W. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/entropy-change-sign/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/entropy-change-sign/Entropy rises with more moles of gas, with melting, boiling and dissolving, and with warming. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/standard-entropy/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/standard-entropy/ΔS°(reaction) = Σ S°(products) − Σ S°(reactants), and the S° of an element is not zero. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/second-law/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/second-law/A process is favored when the entropy of the universe increases, and ΔS(surroundings) = −ΔH/T. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/gibbs-energy/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/gibbs-energy/ΔG = ΔH − TΔS, and a negative ΔG means the process is thermodynamically favored. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/temperature-favorability/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/temperature-favorability/The signs of ΔH and ΔS decide whether heating helps, and the crossover is at T = ΔH/ΔS. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/kinetic-control/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/kinetic-control/A high activation energy can keep a favored reaction from happening at a useful rate. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/free-energy-k/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/free-energy-k/ΔG° = −RT ln K, and ΔG = ΔG° + RT ln Q. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/coupled-reactions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/coupled-reactions/An unfavored reaction can run when it is paired with a strongly favored one, as ATP does in cells. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/galvanic-cells/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/galvanic-cells/A redox reaction split into two half-cells pushes electrons through a wire from the anode to the cathode. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/standard-potentials/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/standard-potentials/E°(cell) = E°(cathode) − E°(anode), and E° is never multiplied by a coefficient. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/cell-potential-free-energy/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/cell-potential-free-energy/ΔG° = −nFE°, so a positive E° means a favored reaction with K > 1. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/nernst/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/nernst/E = E° − (RT/nF) ln Q gives the cell voltage away from standard conditions, even for concentration cells. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/electrolytic-cells/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/electrolytic-cells/An outside power source drives an unfavored redox reaction. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/faraday/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/faraday/Charge equals current times time; divide by Faraday's constant to count moles of electrons. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/batteries-corrosion/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/batteries-corrosion/Batteries and rusting are redox reactions, and a more active metal can protect iron. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/nuclear-stability/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/nuclear-stability/The neutron-to-proton ratio predicts whether a nucleus will beta decay, emit a positron, capture an electron or alpha decay. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/binding-energy/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/binding-energy/A nucleus weighs less than its separate parts, and the missing mass times c² is its binding energy. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/decay-kinetics/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/decay-kinetics/Radioactive decay is first order: N = N₀e^(−kt), even between whole half-lives. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/coordination-compounds/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/coordination-compounds/A central metal ion, its ligands and its coordination number; find the metal's oxidation state. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/naming-coordination/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/naming-coordination/Name the ligands in alphabetical order with prefixes, then the metal and its oxidation state. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/coordination-isomers/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/coordination-isomers/Cis and trans arrangements and mirror-image pairs give complexes with the same formula but different properties. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/crystal-field/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-2/crystal-field/Ligands split the d orbitals; the size of the gap sets the color and the number of unpaired electrons. General Chemistry 2 · Chemistry Ladder