https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/Recent content in General Chemistry 1 on Teddy Rook Bookhttps://teddyrookbook.com/img/share.jpghttps://teddyrookbook.com/img/share.jpgHugoenhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/mass-laws/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/mass-laws/A compound has a fixed mass ratio of elements; when two elements make several compounds, their mass ratios compare as small whole numbers. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/mass-spectra/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/mass-spectra/Each peak is an isotope: its position gives the mass and its height gives the abundance. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/combustion-analysis/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/combustion-analysis/Burn a compound, weigh the CO₂ and H₂O, and work back to its empirical formula. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/mixture-composition/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/mixture-composition/Use the measured mass of one element to find how much of each compound a mixture holds. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/light-waves/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/light-waves/Light's speed is its wavelength times its frequency: c = λν. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/photons/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/photons/Light comes in packets of energy E = hν, and only photons above a threshold frequency can free an electron from a metal. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/hydrogen-spectrum/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/hydrogen-spectrum/Eₙ = −2.18 × 10⁻¹⁸ J / n², and each spectral line is a jump between two levels. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/spectroscopy-regions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/spectroscopy-regions/Microwaves set molecules rotating, infrared makes bonds vibrate, and visible and ultraviolet light move electrons to higher levels. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/quantum-numbers/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/quantum-numbers/The numbers n, l, mₗ and mₛ name an electron's shell, subshell, orbital and spin. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/orbital-diagrams/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/orbital-diagrams/Pauli's rule and Hund's rule place the arrows, and unpaired electrons make an atom paramagnetic. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/ion-configurations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/ion-configurations/Transition metals lose their 4s electrons first, and chromium and copper break the filling pattern. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/photoelectron-spectroscopy/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/photoelectron-spectroscopy/Each peak shows the energy needed to remove electrons from one subshell, and its height counts those electrons. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/coulombs-law-atoms/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/coulombs-law-atoms/The attraction between charges grows with the size of the charges and weakens with distance. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/effective-nuclear-charge/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/effective-nuclear-charge/Core electrons screen the nucleus, so a valence electron feels roughly the protons minus the core electrons. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/successive-ionization/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/successive-ionization/Each electron removed costs more, and a huge jump appears once the valence electrons are gone. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/trend-exceptions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/trend-exceptions/The dips at boron and oxygen come from starting a new subshell and from the first paired electron. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/ionic-radii/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/ionic-radii/Cations are smaller than their atoms and anions larger; in an isoelectronic series, more protons make a smaller ion. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/bond-potential-energy/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/bond-potential-energy/Two bonded atoms settle at the distance where their potential energy is lowest. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/lattice-energy/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/lattice-energy/Higher ion charges and smaller ions hold an ionic crystal together more tightly. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/metals-alloys/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/metals-alloys/Metals are cations in a sea of shared electrons; alloys mix in other atoms by substitution or in the gaps. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/formal-charge/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/formal-charge/Assign each atom its share of the electrons; the best Lewis structure has formal charges closest to zero. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/resonance/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/resonance/When more than one Lewis structure fits, the real molecule is a blend with in-between bonds. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/octet-exceptions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/octet-exceptions/Odd-electron molecules, electron-poor boron and beryllium, and atoms past period 2 with more than eight electrons. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/vsepr-five-six/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/vsepr-five-six/The trigonal bipyramidal and octahedral families, and where their lone pairs go. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/hybridization/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/hybridization/sp, sp² and sp³ orbitals match two, three and four electron groups; a double bond is one σ bond and one π bond. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/molecular-orbitals/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/molecular-orbitals/Atomic orbitals combine into bonding and antibonding orbitals that give the bond order and the magnetism. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/comparing-forces/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/comparing-forces/Size, polarizability and shape set the strength of dispersion forces, which can outweigh dipole forces. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/vapor-pressure/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/vapor-pressure/A liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals the pressure above it. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/clausius-clapeyron/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/clausius-clapeyron/ln(P₂/P₁) = −(ΔH_vap/R)(1/T₂ − 1/T₁) links vapor pressure to temperature. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/phase-diagrams/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/phase-diagrams/Read the phase at any temperature and pressure, and find the triple point and the critical point. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/unit-cells/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/unit-cells/Count the atoms in simple, body-centered and face-centered cubic cells, and find a crystal's density. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/separations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/separations/Distillation sorts by boiling point, and chromatography sorts by attraction to the paper or column. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/electrolytes/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/electrolytes/Strong electrolytes split completely into ions, weak electrolytes partly, and nonelectrolytes not at all. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/ion-concentrations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/ion-concentrations/One formula unit can release several ions: 0.20 M CaCl₂ is 0.40 M in Cl⁻. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/dissolution-energy/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/dissolution-energy/Pulling solute apart and pulling solvent apart cost energy, forming new attractions releases it, and the total is ΔH of solution. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/gas-solubility/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/gas-solubility/More pressure dissolves more gas (C = kP), and warmer water holds less gas. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/concentration-units/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/concentration-units/Other ways to state concentration, each suited to a different job. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/converting-concentrations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/converting-concentrations/Use the solution's density to switch between molarity, molality and mass percent. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/beer-lambert/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/beer-lambert/Absorbance is proportional to concentration, A = εbc, so a calibration line reveals an unknown concentration. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/raoults-law/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/raoults-law/A nonvolatile solute lowers the solvent's vapor pressure: P = χ(solvent) × P°. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/freezing-boiling-points/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/freezing-boiling-points/ΔT = iKm: dissolved particles lower the freezing point and raise the boiling point. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/osmotic-pressure/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/osmotic-pressure/Π = iMRT: water moves through a membrane toward the more concentrated side. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/molar-mass-colligative/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/molar-mass-colligative/Measure ΔT or Π, find the moles of solute, then divide its mass by those moles. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/gas-density/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/gas-density/d = PM/RT, so the density of a gas reveals its molar mass. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/gas-stoichiometry/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/gas-stoichiometry/Use PV = nRT to turn a volume of gas into moles inside a stoichiometry problem. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/partial-pressures/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/partial-pressures/Each gas in a mixture pushes as if it were alone: Pᵢ = χᵢ × P(total). General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/molecular-speeds/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/molecular-speeds/At one temperature every gas has the same average kinetic energy, so lighter molecules move faster and effuse faster: rate ∝ 1/√M. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/speed-distributions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/speed-distributions/Molecular speeds spread over a curve that flattens and shifts toward faster speeds as the temperature rises. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/real-gases/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/real-gases/The particles' own volume and their attractions make real gases stray from PV = nRT at high pressure and low temperature. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/net-ionic-equations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/net-ionic-equations/Write dissolved strong electrolytes as ions, then cancel the spectator ions. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/solution-stoichiometry/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/solution-stoichiometry/Molarity times volume gives moles, which go straight into a mole ratio. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/gravimetric-analysis/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/gravimetric-analysis/Weigh a precipitate to find how much of an ion a sample held. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/titration-calculations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/titration-calculations/Use the volume at the equivalence point and the mole ratio to find a concentration, a molar mass or a percent purity. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/oxidation-numbers/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/oxidation-numbers/Oxidation numbers are bookkeeping charges that track electrons; in a neutral compound they add to zero. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/redox-reactions/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/redox-reactions/Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain; one never happens without the other. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/balancing-redox/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/balancing-redox/Split the reaction into half-reactions, balance atoms and charge with electrons, then add them back together. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/redox-titrations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/redox-titrations/Titrate with permanganate or another oxidizing agent, using the electron-balanced mole ratio. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/first-law/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/first-law/ΔU = q + w: energy that enters the system counts as positive, and energy that leaves counts as negative. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/pv-work/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/pv-work/A gas that expands against an outside pressure does work on the surroundings: w = −PΔV. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/enthalpy-equations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/enthalpy-equations/ΔH is the heat at constant pressure; it scales with the equation and changes sign when the reaction is reversed. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/enthalpy-stoichiometry/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/enthalpy-stoichiometry/Multiply moles by ΔH per mole of reaction, using the mole ratio to the substance you were given. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/heating-curve-calculations/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/heating-curve-calculations/Add mcΔT for each warming step and nΔH for each phase change along the way. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/reaction-calorimetry/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/reaction-calorimetry/Find ΔH from a temperature change: q(reaction) = −q(solution), divided by the moles that reacted. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/bomb-calorimetry/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/bomb-calorimetry/At constant volume, the heat the calorimeter takes up, C(cal) × ΔT, measures the energy released by burning a sample. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/hess-law/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/hess-law/Add chemical equations like algebra, and add their ΔH values the same way. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/enthalpy-of-formation/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/enthalpy-of-formation/ΔH°(reaction) = Σ ΔH°f(products) − Σ ΔH°f(reactants). General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladderhttps://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/born-haber/Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000https://teddyrookbook.com/chemistry/general-chemistry-1/born-haber/Add up the steps that build an ionic solid from its elements to find its lattice energy. General Chemistry 1 · Chemistry Ladder