The civil rights movement gave other groups a model: organize, protest, go to court, and press Congress. In the 1960s and 1970s farmworkers, Native nations, women and people with disabilities all drew on it.
Key idea
Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta organized farmworkers (the UFW); the American Indian Movement (1968) pressed for treaty rights; the women's movement won Title IX (1972), though the Equal Rights Amendment was not ratified; the Americans with Disabilities Act passed in 1990.
| Movement | Leaders and groups | Key events |
|---|---|---|
| Farmworkers | Cesar Chavez, Dolores Huerta, Larry Itliong; the United Farm Workers | Delano grape strike (1965 to 1970) and a national boycott of table grapes; contracts won in 1970 |
| Native American rights | The American Indian Movement (Minneapolis, 1968) | Occupation of Alcatraz (1969 to 1971); the occupation at Wounded Knee in 1973; the Indian Self-Determination Act (1975) |
| Women's rights | Betty Friedan (The Feminine Mystique, 1963); the National Organization for Women (1966) | Equal Pay Act (1963); Title VII bans sex discrimination in jobs (1964); Title IX (1972) |
| Disability rights | Activists of the 1970s and 1980s | Rehabilitation Act (1973); Americans with Disabilities Act (July 26, 1990) |
Why it works
Title IX (1972) said that no one could be excluded on the basis of sex from any education program receiving federal money; girls' and women's school sports grew enormously as a result. The Equal Rights Amendment said that equality of rights under the law shall not be denied on account of sex. Congress passed it in March 1972 by large bipartisan majorities, and many states ratified quickly. Then opposition grew, led by Phyllis Schlafly, who argued it would harm women by ending legal protections such as exemption from the draft; supporters argued it would secure equality that ordinary laws could change. By the extended deadline of 1982, 35 states had ratified, three short of the 38 needed.
Work it through
Worked example: Is the ERA in the Constitution?
Use Article V to explain the ERA's status.
- Article V: an amendment proposed by Congress takes effect when three-fourths of the states ratify (38 of 50).
- Congress set a deadline, extended to 1982; 35 states had ratified by then, and five had voted to rescind.
- Three more states ratified later (2017 to 2020). Whether those count, after the deadline, is disputed; it has not been certified as part of the Constitution.
Answer: Not ratified by the deadline; its status is disputed.
Common mistake
Many students think the Equal Rights Amendment is part of the Constitution. Congress passed it in 1972, but it was not ratified by three-fourths of the states before its deadline, and its status remains disputed. Another mix-up: Title IX is a law, not an amendment, and covers far more than sports.