Becoming a World Power

American planters and businessmen in Hawaii helped overthrow Queen Liliuokalani (1893), and the U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898; the Spanish-American War (1898) brought Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, where a long war against Filipino independence fighters followed (1899 to 1902); Americans debated empire sharply.

By the 1890s the frontier was settled, factories made more than Americans could buy, and other powers were taking colonies around the world. Many leaders argued the United States needed overseas markets, naval bases and a strong navy. Others, remembering the ideals of the age's debates and of the Declaration, thought ruling other peoples went against American principles.

Key idea

In 1893 American planters and businessmen in Hawaii, backed by U.S. Marines, overthrew Queen Liliuokalani; the U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898. The Spanish-American War (1898) brought Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, where a long war against Filipino independence fighters followed (1899 to 1902).

Why it works

Why war with Spain? Cubans had risen against Spanish rule. American newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer printed sensational stories of Spanish cruelty ("yellow journalism"), and Americans had money in Cuban sugar. When the battleship USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor in February 1898, many blamed Spain (the cause is still debated; one later study pointed to an accident). Congress declared war in April, promising in the Teller Amendment not to annex Cuba. The war lasted under four months. Commodore George Dewey destroyed Spain's fleet at Manila Bay, and the Rough Riders and Black regiments fought at San Juan Hill.

Hawaii (1898) joined the earlier acquisitions. The simplified map does not show Puerto Rico, Guam or the Philippines.

In the Treaty of Paris (1898), Spain freed Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam, and sold the Philippines for \$20 million. Filipinos led by Emilio Aguinaldo had expected independence and fought the Americans from 1899. More than 4,200 American soldiers died, more than 20,000 Filipino fighters were killed, and as many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died of violence, famine and disease. Cuba became independent, but the Platt Amendment (1901) let the U.S. intervene there and keep a naval base at Guantánamo Bay.

Work it through

Worked example: Weighing the debate

In 1899 the Senate debated the treaty. Give one argument from each side.

For empire: markets for American goods, coaling stations for the navy, rivalry with other powers, and a claimed duty to "civilize" (a view many then held and many now reject).
Against: the Anti-Imperialist League (Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie and others) said ruling people without their consent broke the principle of the Declaration; some also feared competition or new citizens.
The Senate ratified the treaty in February 1899, by one vote more than the two-thirds needed.

Answer: Supporters stressed trade, power and a mission abroad; opponents stressed consent of the governed.

Common mistake

Many students think the war with Spain was fought only in Cuba. It began over Cuba, but American forces also fought in the Philippines (Manila Bay) and took Puerto Rico and Guam. Another slip: thinking the war ended American fighting there. The war against Filipino independence fighters lasted longer and cost far more lives than the war with Spain.

Becoming a World Power

Work it through

Practice

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Sources and further reading